[{"id":177,"date":"2021-04-26T17:11:25","date_gmt":"2021-04-26T17:11:25","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=177"},"modified":"2021-05-03T16:53:28","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T16:53:28","slug":"introduction","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/introduction\/","title":{"rendered":"Introduction"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t
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Figure 1. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, Portrait de Madame E.G.. 1869. Pastel on canvas. 61.5 x 51 cm. Private Collection.<\/p><\/div>

Eva Gonzal\u00e8s made her professional debut at the Paris Salon of 1870, exhibiting two works in pastel: La Passante <\/em>(The Bystander<\/em>, 1870) and Portrait de Madame E.G. <\/em>(1869; Fig 1), along with an oil painting, L\u2019Enfant de Troupe <\/em>(The Boy Soldier<\/em>, 1870; Fig 2). Over the course of her career, Gonzal\u00e8s created a total of 124 works, 22 of which were pastel; 14 of those were shown at the Salon.[1] While works in pastel represent a small portion of her oeuvre, these works played an important role in her efforts to shape her public persona and, accordingly, in the critical reception of her art. In turning to pastel, Gonzal\u00e8s utilized a medium long associated with stereotypically feminine attributes such as \u201cdelicacy,\u201d and with female artists. Yet Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s use of pastel was not influenced merely by conformity to the strict gender norms assigned to nineteenth-century female artists; it should also be understood as a calculated choice that contributed to her artistic self-fashioning. Thus, she successfully navigated gendered conventions while deploying the medium in bold, experimental ways in the 1870s and early 1880s.<\/a><\/p>

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Figure 2. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, L\u2019Enfant de Troupe. 1870. Oil on canvas. 130 x 98 cm. Mus\u00e9e Gaston Rapin, Villeneuve-sur-Lot, France.<\/p><\/div>

In this period, Gonzal\u00e8s used pastel in a manner that increasingly aligned her art with that of the Impressionists. This allowed her to subtly establish her own artistic identity, independent from her one-time teacher \u00c9douard Manet. Her association with Manet began in February 1869, when the two were introduced by their mutual acquaintance, painter Alfred Stevens. By that time, Gonzal\u00e8s already had some artistic training under Charles Joshua Chaplin, a well-known society portraitist.[2] Gonzal\u00e8s became Manet\u2019s only formal pupil, and she continued to receive guidance from him throughout her career.[3] Like Manet, Gonzal\u00e8s exhibited regularly at the Salon, and chose not to participate in the Impressionist exhibitions of 1874-1886. She did, however, show in other venues, including the 1874 \u201cSalon des Refus\u00e9s\u201d; an 1882 exhibition staged in the offices of the periodical L\u2019Art<\/em>; the first-ever \u201cSalon de Femmes,\u201d which took place that same year; and at the Galerie Georges Petit, a commercial gallery, in 1883.[4] From this history, we can surmise that Gonzal\u00e8s built her artistic reputation by striking a careful balance between participation in the mainstream art world and the adoption of an increasingly avant-garde, Impressionistic style.<\/p>

Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s relationships with Manet and other peers, both male and female, have often overshadowed her career, both during her lifetime and in scholarly discourse after her untimely death in 1883. Even feminist scholars at times foreground Manet\u2019s art in ways that inadvertently promote him at her expense. This is true, for example, of Carol Grant\u2019s 1994 dissertation on Gonzal\u00e8s, which is one of very few texts to focus exclusively on the artist. Grant\u2019s stated aim is to \u201cprovide new information and richer insight concerning the content of at least, her major work.\u201d[5] At the same time, Grant frequently resorts to comparisons with Manet that can make Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work appear derivative\u2014as when she argues that Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s Une Loge aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italiens <\/em>(1874; Fig. 3) is indebted to Manet\u2019s Olympia <\/em>(1856; Fig. 4) on the basis of the shared motif of a bouquet. Tamar Garb\u2019s writing on Manet\u2019s 1870 portrait of Gonzal\u00e8s portrait falls into a related trap.[6] As Garb rightly notes, the portrait fails to portray Gonzal\u00e8s as an accomplished artist in her own right. Details such as her white dress (which would be impractical to wear when painting) and the canvas on the easel in front of her (a creation of Manet\u2019s) stress Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s propriety and strip her of her identity as a painter. Instead, Garb argues, this painting functions as a manifesto declaring Manet\u2019s own commitment to painterly realism. While this reading is convincing, it ultimately centers on Manet\u2019s artistic choices, thereby depriving Gonzal\u00e8s of agency over her own image as an artist.<\/a><\/p>

\"\"

Figure 3. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, Une Loge aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Italiens. 1874. Oil on canvas. 98 x 130 cm. Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France.<\/p><\/div>

<\/a><\/p>

Gonzal\u00e8s is also frequently compared with other female artists in the Impressionist orbit, such as Mary Cassatt and Berthe Morisot, simply by virtue of their shared gender. Gonzal\u00e8s has been included in exhibitions such as \u201cLes Femmes Impressionnistes\u201d at the Mus\u00e9e Marmottan in 1993 and \u201cWomen Artists in Paris: 1850-1900\u201d at the Clark Institute in 2018, among others. While such comparisons can be somewhat illuminating, they flatten the complexities surrounding Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s relationship to the Impressionist group, including the fact that she apparently chose not to participate in their exhibitions. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s inclusion solely on the basis of gender thus once again obscures her individuality as an artist and the particular ways she navigated her professional career.<\/p>

Albert Boime alone goes beyond the correlation of Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s interests with those of her artist peers. Boime focuses on a review of Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s Une Loge aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Italiens<\/em> by the nineteenth-century French feminist critic Maria Deraimes. Through a close reading, he argues that this politically charged review not only promotes Deraimes\u2019 own intellect, but also Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s, by highlighting the artist\u2019s strategic<\/p>

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Figure 4. Edouard Manet. Olympia.1863. Oil on canvas. 130 x 190 cm. Musee d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France<\/p><\/div>

engagement with the subject matter. As Boime notes, Deraismes called the woman in the theater box \u201chighly intelligent and independent, able to respond to the music with a depth of feeling and appreciation foreign to her male partner.\u201d[7] The agency that Desraimes attributes to this figure contrasts with contemporaneous works on similar subjects by Auguste Renoir and Mary Cassatt, in which the female figure does not project the same degree of intelligence and autonomy. Deraismes praises Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s creativity and commitment to her profession, stating that the artist \u201chas the wisdom to grasp that youth and beauty are transient gifts, while knowledge and talent are imperishable goods.\u201d[8] While a useful corrective to the typical view of Gonzal\u00e8s, this narrowly-focused essay isolates Gonzal\u00e8s somewhat from the broader context of the Parisian art world.<\/p>

<\/a><\/p>

My aim in this capstone is to focus on Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s use of pastels in order to illuminate the way in which she navigated both the opportunities and the limitations she faced as a professional woman artist in the 1870s and 80s. In light of the relative lack of secondary sources on Gonzal\u00e8s, and the absence of a catalogue raisonn\u00e9, I have concentrated my research on primary sources, particularly critical reviews, as well as providing my own formal analyses of her works in pastel. Together with a history of pastel and its reception, these approaches can elucidate her strategies of professional self-presentation. It is my hope that this capstone can make Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work more visible to art historians and the general public, and thereby inspire further work on this important artist.<\/p>

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  1. Marie-Caroline Sainsaulieu and Jacques de Mons.\u00a0Eva Gonzal\u00e8s: 1849-1883: \u00c9tude critique et catalogue raisonn\u00e9<\/em>. (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: 1990), n.p.<\/li>
  2. Delia Gaze. Dictionary of Women Artists. <\/em>(Chicago: Fitzroy-Dearborne: 1997), 596-599.<\/li>
  3. \u201cEdouard Manet Eva Gonzal\u00e8s\u201d<\/em> National Gallery, accessed February 12, 2021, https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/edouard-manet-eva-gonzales<\/li>
  4. Russell T Clement, Annick Houze, Christiane Erbolato-Ramsey. The Women Impressionists: A Sourcebook<\/em> (Santa Barbara: Westport, 2000), 165.<\/li>
  5. Carol Jane Grant, “Eva Gonzales (1849-1883): An Examination of the Artist’s Style and Subject Matter. (Volumes I and II).” (Ph.D. diss., The Ohio State University, 1994),\u00a026.<\/li>
  6. Tamar Garb, The Painted Face: Portraits of Women in France, 1814-1914. <\/em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 68.<\/li>
  7. Albert Boime, \u201cMaria Deraismes and Eva Gonzal\u00e8s: A Feminist Critique of \u2018Une Loge Aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Des Italiens.\u2019\u201d Woman\u2019s Art Journal<\/em> 15, no. 2 (1994): 35.<\/li>
  8. Boime, 36.<\/li><\/ol>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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    Eva Gonzal\u00e8s made her professional debut at the Paris Salon of 1870, exhibiting two works in pastel: La Passante (The Bystander, 1870) and Portrait de Madame E.G. (1869; Fig 1), along with an oil painting, L\u2019Enfant de Troupe (The Boy Soldier, 1870; Fig 2). Over the course of her career, Gonzal\u00e8s created a total of […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-177","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/177","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=177"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/177\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=177"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":112,"date":"2021-03-22T18:14:30","date_gmt":"2021-03-22T18:14:30","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=112"},"modified":"2021-05-03T14:42:01","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T14:42:01","slug":"welcome","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/","title":{"rendered":"Welcome"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    \u00a0<\/h4>

    \u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Next Page \u00a0 \u00a0<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-112","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/112","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=112"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/112\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=112"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":79,"date":"2021-03-20T17:41:46","date_gmt":"2021-03-20T17:41:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=79"},"modified":"2021-05-03T18:45:16","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T18:45:16","slug":"the-rococo-pastel-a-feminine-medium","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/the-rococo-pastel-a-feminine-medium\/","title":{"rendered":"The Rococo Pastel: A “Feminine” Medium?"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    In order to understand how and why Gonzal\u00e8s turned to pastel for her Salon debut and beyond, it is necessary to know more about the history of the medium and the vicissitudes of its reception. Gonzal\u00e8s chose pastel in part because of its longstanding association with three interrelated phenomena: the art of the Rococo period; color and its sensory appeal; and the domain of the \u201cfeminine.\u201d These associations allowed Gonzal\u00e8s to frame her entry into the Parisian art world as a professional woman artist in safely acceptable terms.<\/p>

    Pastel is composed of three separate ingredients: colored pigment, filler, and binder. Combinations of colored pigments, the same raw material as oil paint, can be used to create brighter or more muted colors. Filler is a white mineral or powder, such as talc, that controls the shade of the crayon, with more or less filler added to create a lighter or darker shade. Binder consists of a sticky or oily ingredient, such as an oil or a type of natural gum. The more binder added, the more wet or oily it looks when applied to a surface.<\/p>

    The pastel technique has its origins in Renaissance France. \u201cThe manner of dry coloring,\u201d according to Genevi\u00e9ve Monnier, was introduced by Jean Perr\u00e8al to Leonardo da Vinci at the turn of the sixteenth century, when Perr\u00e8al made a trip to Milan with Louis XII.[9] In the 1500s and 1600s, pastel was used primarily for preparatory sketches, not as a medium to produce finished pictures. Before the 1660s, many artists manufactured their own crayons, as commercial manufacturing production was very limited, and the quality of the product was often poor.[10] However, in the late seventeenth century, several innovations allowed pastel to be used for high-quality finished artworks. In the 1680s, a glass pouring technique developed by the French royal glassworks manufactory allowed for the production of plates big enough to cover large-scale portraits. Such surface protection was essential for the preservation of works in pastel.[11]<\/p>

    Accordingly, by the early 1700s, the popularity of pastel as a medium began to grow. Due to improved production technology, economic appeal, a revival of craft, and an increased demand for portraits, a rapid increase in trade of the medium occurred.[12] The task of fabricating pastel often fell into the hands of independent artisans, who worked closely with pastel artists to create their desired product in terms of color and consistency.[13] In the early eighteenth century, the Acad\u00e9mie Royale des Beaux-Arts and the Acad\u00e9mie des Sciences increasingly emphasized the importance and value of craft practices.[14] In addition, artists started to favor pastel because they could complete portraits more quickly than with oil paint due to the lack of drying time needed and the ease of transportation. Moreover, pastel portraits were a relatively inexpensive item and possessed a higher production yield, which further widened their appeal.<\/p>

    As pastel gained popularity and greater critical esteem in the 18th<\/sup> century, it also accrued a certain association with the feminine. Firstly, this derived from the medium\u2019s association with color, which in turn, was perceived as feminine due to its links with emotion and the senses.[15] By contrast, line was associated with logic, which was viewed as an inherently masculine trait.[16] This art-theoretical debate was addressed in Charles Le Brun\u2019s essay \u201cThoughts on M. Blanchard\u2019s Discourse on the Merits of Color\u201d (1672). Le Brun, a partisan of line, refuted Louis-Gabriel Blanchard\u2019s claim that color was superior to design because it differentiated painting from all other imitative arts. Le Brun argued that design is both \u201cintellectual and practical\u201d and \u201cutterly necessary for coloring,\u201d because line can \u201ceven express the passions of the soul without the need for colour except for showing blushing and pallor.\u201d[17] Le Brun\u2019s terminology is crucial: by linking color with the action of blushing, he invoked both a physiological reaction stereotypically related to female propriety, and the fetishized terrain of a woman\u2019s skin. This influential text led later theorists, philosophers, and artists to cement this negative association between color and femininity. Immanuel Kant, in his 1790 Critique of the Power of Judgement<\/em>, repeated the essence of Le Brun\u2019s stance when he declared that color and texture were superfluous\u2014i.e., superficial\u2014and masked the truth of essential forms.[18] Anthony Pasquin, an eighteenth-century art critic, similarly dismissed pastel as \u201cchiefly calculated for the observance of those whose love of softness and finery govern their applause and protection,\u201d a clear reference to female connoisseurs.[19] \u00a0These gendered views left a long lasting imprint: pastel was thereafter relegated to the bottom of the hierarchy of media established by the Acad\u00e9mie.<\/p>

    Pastel was also deemed more appropriate for women artists, relative to oil painting, in part because it was seen as cleaner to work with. Beginning in the late 1700s and early 1800s, pastels created by commercial entities were marketed to women: advertisements claimed that pastel boxes offered a range of colors ideal for \u201cflowers, figures, and landscapes.\u201d[20] These genres were deemed suitable for women because these subjects could be easily copied, and did not require academic training in the study of history paintings and the nude male form, which women only infrequently were allowed.[21] While its wide accessibility and ease of use encouraged women to take up pastel, its associations with the feminine tainted the medium\u2019s reputation in the eyes of academicians and many critics. It became known as a domestic pastime; or, as an anonymous treatise of 1788 stated, a \u201crescue to so many young women from the tedium of solitude.\u201d[22] Pastel was considered a \u201cresource[e] against idleness, the source of so many indiscretions.\u201d[23] The medium, therefore, was perceived as a tool to keep women occupied and thereby to bar any immoral thoughts or deeds. This made pastel a double-edged sword for women practitioners. If a woman created pastel art, her work was deemed as amateur and done for mere amusement, yet this was the only medium readily accessible to her. This double bind contributed to a larger set of systematic barriers that made it difficult for women to claim the identity of a professional artist.<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 5. Jean-Francois Millet. Shepherdess and Her Flock. 1864-1865. Black Chalk and Pastel. 36.4 x 47.5 cm. Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California, United States.<\/p><\/div>

    But, after a long period of disapprobation, pastel was revived in the nineteenth century, and was accompanied by a shift in the ways artists and audiences perceived the medium and its characteristic aesthetic. At the time of Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Millet\u2019s death in 1875, a posthumous exhibition and auction of his pastel works, then owned by Emile Gavet, sparked a resurgence of the medium: it was revalued as suitable for completed, exhibition-worthy pictures. The exhibition and public auction of Millet\u2019s works enjoyed great critical and commercial success.[24] It must be noted, though, that Millet\u2019s use of pastel differed substantially from that of eighteenth-century practitioners. He exchanged the refined blending and smooth, velvety textures of the Rococo era for chaotic cross hatching and heavy contours.[25] These techniques can be seen in Millet\u2019s Shepherdess and Her Flock <\/em>(1864-1865; Fig. 5): the artist used complex, multi-directional and multi-colored strokes to depict elements such as the grass; the sun\u2019s rays cutting through the clouds; and the coat of the shepherdess, outlined with strong, thick contours. While the revival of pastel cannot be solely contributed to this exhibition and auction alone, Millet showed how pastel could be reformulated to fit a late nineteenth-century aesthetic.<\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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    9. Genevi\u00e9ve Monnier, \u201cPastel,\u201d In Grove Art Online, <\/em>Oxford University Press, 2003.\u00a0https:\/\/www.oxfordartonline.com\/groveart\/view\/10.1093\/gao\/9781884446054.001.0001\/oao-9781884446054-e-7000065711<\/p>

    <\/a><\/p>

    10.\u00a0Marjorie Shelley, \u201cPainting in the Dry Manner: The Flourishing of the Pastel in 18th<\/sup> Century Europe,\u201d The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin<\/em> 68, no. 4 (2011): 5.<\/p>

    <\/i>11.\u00a0Shelley, 8.<\/p>

    12. Shelley, 5.<\/p>

    13. Shelley, 8.<\/p>

    14. Shelley, 8.<\/p>

    15. Melissa Hyde, \u201cThe Makeup of the Marquise,\u201d In Making Up the Rococo: Fran\u00e7ois Boucher and His Critics<\/em> (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2006), 107.<\/p>

    16. Jacqueline Lichtenstein, \u201cMaking up Representation: The Risk of Femininity\u201d,\u00a0Representation,\u00a0<\/i>no. 20 (Autumn 1987): 81.<\/p>

    17.\u00a0Charles Le Brun, \u201cThoughts on M. Blanchard\u2019s Discourse on the Merits of Colour\u201d (1672), reprinted in Charles Harrison, Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger, eds., Art in Theory 1648-1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas<\/em> (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2000), 183.<\/p>

    18.\u00a0Ruth Kenny, \u201cThe Craze for Pastel\u201d, BP Spotlight: The Craze for Pastel<\/em> (blog), The Tate,<\/em> 2014, https:\/\/www.tate.org.uk\/whats-on\/tate-britain\/display\/bp-spotlight-craze-pastel\/essay<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>

    19. Kenny, \u201cThe Craze for Pastel\u201d, n.p.<\/p>

    20.Stacey Sell, The Touch of Color: Pastels at the National Gallery of Art, <\/em>(Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 2019), 7. https:\/\/www.nga.gov\/content\/dam\/ngaweb\/exhibitions\/pdfs\/2019\/touch-of-color-pastels.pdf<\/p>

    21. Sell, 7.<\/p>

    22. Sell, 7.<\/p>

    23. Sell, 7.<\/p>

    24.\u00a0\u201cPeasants in Pastel: Jean-Francois and the Pastel Revival.\u201d Gallery Text, J. Paul Getty Museum, last modified 2019, http:\/\/www.getty.edu\/art\/exhibitions\/millet_pastels\/downloads\/pastels_gallery_text.pdf<\/p>

    25. Sell, 7.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t

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    In order to understand how and why Gonzal\u00e8s turned to pastel for her Salon debut and beyond, it is necessary to know more about the history of the medium and the vicissitudes of its reception. Gonzal\u00e8s chose pastel in part because of its longstanding association with three interrelated phenomena: the art of the Rococo period; […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-79","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/79","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=79"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/79\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=79"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":70,"date":"2021-03-20T17:11:42","date_gmt":"2021-03-20T17:11:42","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=70"},"modified":"2021-05-03T15:18:44","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T15:18:44","slug":"impressionist-experiments-with-pastel","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/impressionist-experiments-with-pastel\/","title":{"rendered":"Impressionist Experiments with Pastel"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    In the 1870s and 1880s, when Gonzal\u00e8s started working in pastel, its reception was being transformed by artists and critics alike. This was due in part to its adoption by members of the Impressionist group. The transportability of pastel, and its ability to quickly capture scenes of everyday life, made the medium attractive to Impressionist artists. In the 1880s, pastel received another boost in its reception from the \u201cRococo revival\u201d spearheaded by critics and art administrators. As a result of their efforts, this formerly disparaged style was recast as an integral part of the nation\u2019s cultural heritage and distinctive identity. [26]<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 6. La Maison du Pastel located in Paris, France. Founded in 1720 by Henri Roche. This is the shop where Degas has his pastels crafted.<\/p><\/div>

    Several artists included works in pastel among their submissions to the first \u201cImpressionist\u201d exhibition of 1874, including Berthe Morisot, Auguste Renoir and Claude Monet.[27] But it was Edgar Degas whose career and signature style became enmeshed with the use of pastel: he applied this medium to depict typical Impressionist motifs in novel and original ways.[28] His experimentation with pastel became part of his broader usage of unusual media, including monotype, gouache, and distemper.[29] The pastels he used were unconventional in both their chemical composition and the manner in which they were applied. As Laura Kalba notes, Degas steered clear of commercial art suppliers who could not produce pastels that met his individual requirements in terms of color and texture (Fig. 6).[30] Instead, he embraced artificial colors that were used commercially in products such as fabrics for fashion and furniture.[31] These colors, often produced through chemical means, allowed a brightness and vibrancy of color that could not be achieved with other materials or media.<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 7. left to right: an example of hatching, cross-hatching, and feathering in pastel. Photo credits to Richard McKinley.<\/p><\/div>

    Degas used pastel in order to capture a sense of movement among his subjects and to create a sense of immediacy, emphasizing its suitability for capturing fleeting scenes of modern-day Parisian experiences. Degas\u2019s pastel technique was idiosyncratic. He often applied pastel to an unprepared canvas or sheet of paper, then sprayed boiling water over the surface to make the pastel into a paste, thus creating a variety of textures.[32] His method of application appeared quick, chaotic and raw, although his frequent use of cross-hatching indicates a certain systematic quality to his approach (Fig. 7). Degas\u2019s pastels were also heavily sealed, often with casein, a protein found in milk, to protect the powdery, fragile medium.[33] Layering pastels on top of monotype prints allowed him to replicate the way in which light manipulated the color of objects and figures on and off stage in his many images of the ballet and of Parisian caf\u00e9 life.[34] For example, this technique can be seen in Two Women <\/em>(1878-1880; Fig. 8), an image of cabaret performers. In the face of the woman on the left, Degas layered colors such as yellow, blue, and pink, heightening the complex, colored shadows associated with the Impressionist style. Both women\u2019s faces are also bathed in a bright white that suggests the strong, harsh glow of indoor lighting. The directional strokes that comprise the skirts of the two women also convey the ephemeral creases that appeared in the fabric as they moved.[35]<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 8. Edgar Degas. Two Women. 1878-1880. Pastel over watercolor and charcoal over tan laid paper, mounted to board. 29.21 x 44.45 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., United States.<\/p><\/div>

    During the 1880s, the revival of pastel by figures such as Millet and Degas was bolstered by a broader revival of interest in the Rococo style. This \u201crediscovery\u201d of the Rococo in the 1880s depended in large measure on developments that had begun two decades earlier. In the 1860s, the Louvre Museum received a large donation from Louis La Caze and Fran\u00e7ois Walferdin of Rococo-era f<\/em>\u00ea<\/em>tes galantes<\/em> by artists such as Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard and Jean-Antoine Watteau.[36] These works were given their own gallery space specifically for this theme.[37] Around the same time, Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eug\u00e9nie used their patronage to encourage a revitalization of the Rococo, especially in portraits of Eug\u00e9nie by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.[38]\u00a0Portrait of Empress Eug\u00e9nie <\/em>(1857; Fig 9), for example, harkens back to the Rococo through the pastoral background and extravagant dress: these aspects harken back to precedents such as Elisabeth Louise Vig\u00e9e Le Brun\u2019s famous Marie Antoinette en Chemise<\/em> (1783; Fig 10).<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 9. Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Portrait of Empress Eug\u00e9nie. 1857. Oil on canvas. 138.4 cm x 109.2 cm. Hillwood Estate, Museum and Gardens, Washington D.C., United States.<\/p><\/div>

    The government of the Third Republic also played an important part in this development: beginning in the 1890s, the arts administration began a series of restoration projects that claimed Rococo art and craft as an important part of the French national patrimony.[39] This interest was sparked by Edmond and Jules Goncourt, whose Salon gatherings in their home and art criticism initiated greater interest in eighteenth-century applied arts. In the 1890s, items of furniture rescued from renovations of various eighteenth-century Parisian h\u00f4tels that were converted to national administration buildings were given to the Louvre to serve an artistic testament of the nation.[40] These elegant Rococo furnishings and art objects inspired artisans who adapted the style of these crafts into the burgeoning Art Nouveau style, above all in the sinuous arabesque curves that defined this aesthetic.[41]<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 10. Elisabeth Vig\u00e9e Le Brun. Marie Antoinette en Chemise. 1783. Oil on canvas. 89.8 x 72 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, New York, United States.<\/p><\/div>

    Henri d\u2019Orl\u00e9ans, The Duc d\u2019Aumale, also contributed to the revitalization of the Rococothrough his restoration of the Ch\u00e2teau de Chantilly, estate of The Duc d\u2019Aumale, a project that lasted from 1872 to 1884. His involvement in this prominent restoration project won him election to the French Academy in 1873 and to the Academy of Beaux-Arts in 1880.[42] The Duc held salons for the literary and artistic elite in the petit chateau, the Hunt Gallery. These guests were able to view Rococo works such as pieces by Charles-Andr\u00e9 van Loo, Jean-Antoine Watteau, portraits of Louis XV, and portraits of Madame de Pompadour that were above rows of bookcases filled with scholarly works by representatives of the Rococo.[43] The Hunt Gallery Rococo interior allowed him to publicize his association with the Central Union of the Decorative Arts, an organization created to promote the applied arts that became an important vehicle for the Rococo revival: the Duc served on the consulting committees for the Union\u2019s Paris exhibitions.[44] The erudite members of the Central Union of the Decorative Arts strongly advocated for the reclamation of art from the Rococo period by the nation\u2019s cultural institutions.[45] All of these developments made pastel, a medium intimately connected to the Rococo, fertile ground for further experimentation and adaptation.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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    26. Debora Silverman, \u201cThe Third Republic and the Rococo as National Patrimony\u201d In Art Nouveau in Fin de Si\u00e8cle France: Politics, Psychology and Style <\/em>(Oakland: University of California Press, 1989), 142.<\/p>

    27. Paul Tucker, \u201cThe First Impressionist Exhibition and Monet\u2019s Impression, Sunrise: A Tale of Timing, Commerce, and Patriotism.\u201d\u00a0Art history<\/em>\u00a07, no. 4 (1984): 465.<\/p>

    28. Richard Kendall, \u201cThe Metaphor of Craft: Tradition, Draughtmanship, and the Transformation of Degas\u2019s Technique\u201d In\u00a0Beyond Impressionism\u00a0<\/em>(London: National Gallery Publications, 1996), 59.<\/p>

    29.\u00a0\u201cEdgar Degas: A Strange New Beauty,\u201d What\u2019s On, Museum of Modern Art, last modified 2016, https:\/\/www.moma.org\/calendar\/exhibitions\/1613<\/a><\/p>

    30. Laura Anne Kalba, \u201cImpressionism\u2019s Chemical Aesthetic: The Materials and Meanings of Color\u201d In Color in the Age of Impressionism: Commerce, Technology, Art<\/em> (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2017), 81.<\/p>

    31. Kalba, 81.<\/p>

    32. Alfred Werner, Degas: Pastels, <\/em>(New York: Watson-Guptill, 1998), 16.<\/p>

    33. Werner, 16.<\/p>

    34. Kalba, 91.<\/p>

    35.\u00a0Kimberly Schenck, \u201cAn Experiment in Pastel and Watercolor by Degas,\u201d National Gallery of Art Blog, National Gallery of Art<\/em>, November 17, 2020. https:\/\/www.nga.gov\/blog\/pastel-watercolor-degas.html<\/a><\/p>

    36. Silverman, 153.<\/p>

    37. Silverman, 153.<\/p>

    38. Silverman, 153.<\/p>

    39 Silverman, 142.<\/p>

    40. Silverman, 155.<\/p>

    41. Silverman, 158.<\/p>

    42. Silverman, 146.<\/p>

    43. Silverman, 146.<\/p>

    44. Silverman, 147.<\/p>

    45. Silverman, 142.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t

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    In the 1870s and 1880s, when Gonzal\u00e8s started working in pastel, its reception was being transformed by artists and critics alike. This was due in part to its adoption by members of the Impressionist group. The transportability of pastel, and its ability to quickly capture scenes of everyday life, made the medium attractive to Impressionist […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-70","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/70","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=70"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/70\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=70"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":43,"date":"2021-02-22T18:28:27","date_gmt":"2021-02-22T18:28:27","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=43"},"modified":"2021-05-03T17:10:51","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T17:10:51","slug":"eva-gonzales-critical-reception","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/eva-gonzales-critical-reception\/","title":{"rendered":"Gonzal\u00e8s’s Pastels: Critical Reception"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    As her artistic career progressed, Gonzal\u00e8s earned increasing praise and recognition for her works. At the beginning of her career in the early 1870s, when her practice was relatively restricted, she received critical reviews dismissing her work with disdainful language rooted in gendered tropes. As her technique matured and she engaged with the Impressionist vanguard, critics began focusing on her technical skill, thereby legitimizing her professional ambitions \u2014but, they continued to view her art through a gendered lens in ways that reviews of her pastel works make particularly evident. The use of gendered language in these reviews is essential to understanding Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s praxis and her choice of pastel as a medium.<\/p>

    La Passante<\/em> received favorable critical reviews, but assessments of this work make clear that critics linked Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s gender to her adoption of the pastel medium.[52] As critic Thomas Grimm wrote:<\/p>

    As for La Passante, by Miss Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, it is an exquisite little canvas [\u2026] real, modern which feels nothing like the pastiche of the Flemish, the Italians, or Meissonier.\u00a0Do you remember the time when pastel flourished?\u00a0Was it not a charming genre, illustrated by Chardin and Rosalba Carriera?\u00a0Well!… How many women ugly and aged by photography regretted this elegant pastel which animated with a smiling grace the most vulgar beauties!\u00a0Well!\u00a0The pastel pencil portrait of Miss J.C., by Miss Eva Gonzal\u00e8s triumphs over both genres. [53]<\/strong><\/em><\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 12. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, La Nich\u00e9e. 1874. Pastel on paper mounted on canvas. 93.8 x 74.3 cm. Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France.<\/p><\/div>

    This review combines high praise with charged gendered language. Grimm describes the work as both exquisite and little, emphasizing the appropriateness of its small size for a female artist. The comparison to Carriera is particularly important because Carriera was a woman, recognized for her velvety-smooth and refined pastel technique. Thus, Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work was deemed feminine in two key respects. In referencing both Carriera and Chardin, the critic also directly aligned her pastel with the art of the Rococo era at an early stage in its late nineteenth-century revival.<\/p>

    La Nich\u00e9e<\/em> (1874; Fig 12), which moved toward a more abstract, Impressionist rendering, received generally high critical praise. Jules Castagnary, art critic for the newspaper Le Si\u00e8cle<\/em> and a well-known supporter of the Impressionists, wrote this review about Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work:<\/p>

    A young girl in a pink peignoir sits in front of her toilet and watches a litter of small dogs crawling in a basket on the floor. It is fair, luminous and a totally seductive harmony. Ms. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s has an education of a colorist, you can see that right away. She also has a distinguished feeling for the things she puts in each of her productions. Nothing common nor mannered: grace itself in its simplicity and naturalness. These are happy qualities that are bound to lead to the best results. [54]<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0<\/p>

    Like Grimm, Castagnary used stereotypically feminine adjectives to describe this work, such as \u201cgrace.\u201d Rather than praising Gonzal\u00e8s for her artistry, though, he deemed the work\u2019s best qualities to be simple and natural, produced by her \u201cfeeling\u201d rather than her intellect. He also noted early on the pink hue that predominates the work, and evoked the association of color with sensuality in his designation of it as \u201cseductive.\u201d Finally, he stressed the level of decorum she achieved, declaring that the work contained nothing \u201cvulgar.\u201d Another review of the same work, by Francis Aubert, made similar points:<\/p>

    A pretty pastel of Miss Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, La Nich\u00e9e, a young woman in a pink peignoir, sitting in front of her chambray and lace toilet, looks at two little newborn puppies in a basket: it is cheerful in tone and removed from execution. Ms. Gonzal\u00e8s, of whom we have seen singularly strong oil paintings, at least in parts, is talented and will certainly have a lot of it if she is willing to free herself a little from some of the influence that prevents her personality from developing freely. [55]<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0<\/p>

    Once again, we see Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work described with adjectives that bear feminine connotations, such as \u201cpretty\u201d and \u201ccheerful.\u201d Importantly, while Aubert compliments Gonzal\u00e8s, he sees her work as derivative, pointing implicitly to the influence of Manet on her style.[56]<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 15. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, La Demoiselle d\u2019Honneur. 1879. Pastel on canvas. 45 x 37 cm. Private Collection.<\/p><\/div>

    In the 1880s, Gonzal\u00e8s continued to garner praise and recognition for her pastels. The following review by Eug\u00e8ne V\u00e9ron examined\u00a0La Demoiselle d\u2019Honneur \u00a0<\/i>(1879; Fig. 7), a work that was exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1880:<\/p>

    Mme. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s is not only a colorist of rare distinction; she also suggests there is a well-accentuated design under the envelope and by the breadth and great sureness of the model. This is the way of pedigreed artists, and this is why this very seductive pastel is better than a charming work. This exquisite art, so eminently French pastel, Eva Gonzal\u00e8s brought it back to life by drawing more inspiration from the graduated traditions of the Latour and Perronneau than from the graces of the Rosalba. [57]<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0<\/p>

    The work in question comes from the more \u201cImpressionistic\u201d phase of Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s career, yet V\u00e9ron did not relate its style to that group. Instead, like many other critics before him, he compared her pastels to precedents of the Rococo era. Importantly, in line with the nationalistic aims of the Rococo revival of the 1880s, he declared her \u201cexquisite,\u201d \u201cseductive,\u201d \u201ccharming\u201d style to be \u201ceminently French.\u201d But in order to elevate her art this way, V\u00e9ron aligned her with male \u201cmasters\u201d of pastel from the Rococo period\u2014de la Tour and Perroneau\u2014and denied any similarities with the style of Carriera. Additionally, V\u00e9ron praised her skill in drawing or design, a stereotypically \u201cmasculine\u201d achievement, as well as her successful treatment of color. V\u00e9ron thereby insinuated that Gonzal\u00e8s was an artist of great intellect, endowing her with \u201cmasculine\u201d bona fides, while still approving her conformity to gender decorum.<\/p>

    \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Eva Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s works in pastel therefore helped her secure favorable recognition as a respected artist. Her use of the medium allowed her to connect with the history and tradition of the French Rococo while also employing experimental, avant-garde techniques. We can see in her reception how successfully she navigated the expectations placed on women artists, but also the limitations that she faced: her adoption of vanguard techniques went almost totally unrecognized by the critics of the day.<\/p>

    As this capstone shows, pastel was a tool that Eva Gonzal\u00e8s utilized strategically to craft her artistic identity within the existing parameters for women artists of the late nineteenth century. Notable within the tradition of French art, and deemed an appropriately feminine medium, pastel enabled her alignment with artists of the Impressionist movement, such as Degas, Monet, and Renoir who, like her, were using it in experimental ways. Her experimentation with the medium has yet to be fully recognized, as it has been shrouded in the gendered language employed by the critics discussed above. This capstone aims to begin a new conversation about Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s work by demonstrating how, in her pastels, she negotiated the complex expectations placed on female artists in the late nineteenth century.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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    52.\u00a0La Passante<\/em> (The Bystander<\/em>; 1870), was exhibited at Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019 debut at the Paris Salon of 1870. The work was lost and no images of the work exist.<\/p>

    53. Thomas Grimm, \u201cLe Clan des Femmes Peintres,\u201d\u00a0Le Petit journal, <\/em>May\u00a030, 1870, 1. \u201cQuant \u00e0 la Passante, de Mlle Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, c\u2019est une petit toile exquise [\u2026] reelle, moderne qui ne sent en rien les pastiche des Flamands, des Italiens, ni des Meissonier. Vous souvenez-vous du temps o\u00f9 le pastel florissait? N\u2019etait-ce pas l\u00e0 un genre charmant, illustr\u00e9 par Chardin et par la Rosalba Carriera? Eh bien!… Que de femmes enlaides et vieillies par la photographie regrettaient ce pastel \u00e9l\u00e9gant qui animait d\u2019une grace souriante les beaut\u00e9s les plus vulgaires! Eh bien! Le pastel a croyons le portrait de Mlle J.C., par Mlle Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, qui triomphe daus les deux genres.<\/p>

    54. Jules Castagnary, \u201cLe Salon de 1874,\u201d Le Si\u00e8cle, <\/em>May\u00a026, 1874, 2. \u201cUne jeune fille en peignoir rose est assise devant sa toilette et regarde une nich\u00e9e de petits chiens grouillant dans une corbeille \u00e0 terre. C\u2019est blond, lumieux et d\u2019une harmonie toute s\u00e9duisante. Mlle. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s a une \u00e9ducation de coloriste, cela se voit tout d\u2019abord. Elle a en outre un sentiment distingu\u00e9 des choses qu\u2019elle met dans chacune de ses productions. Rien de vulgaire, ni de mani\u00e9r\u00e9: la gr\u00e2ce m\u00eame dans sa simplicit\u00e9 et son naturel. Ce sont l\u00e0 des qualit\u00e9s heureuses qui ne peuvent manquer d\u2019aboutir aux meilleurs r\u00e9sultats.\u201d<\/p>

    55. Francis Aubert, \u201cLe Salon,\u201d La France,\u00a0<\/em>June\u00a02, 1874, 3. \u201cUn joli pastel de Mlle. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, La Nich\u00e9e, une jeune femme en peignoir rose, assise devant sa toilette de bastiste et dentelles, regarde deux petit cheins nouveau-n\u00e9s dans un panier: c\u2019est gai de ton et enlev\u00e9 d\u2019ex\u00e9cution. Mlle. Gonzal\u00e8s don\u2019t nous avons vu des peintures \u00e0 l\u2019huile singuli\u00e8rement fortes, au moins par parties, a du talent et en aura certainement beaucoup si elle veut bien s\u2019affranchir un peu d\u2019une influence qui emp\u00eache sa personnalit\u00e9 de se developer librement.\u201d<\/p>

    56. Aubert, 3.<\/p>

    57. Eug\u00e8ne V\u00e9ron, \u201cMadame Eva Gonzal\u00e8s,\u201d Courrier de l\u2019art: Chronique Hebdomadaire des ateliers, des mus\u00e9es, des expositions, des ventes publiques., \u00a0<\/em>January 2, 1885, 53. \u201cEva Gonzal\u00e8s ne s’y montre pas seulement coloriste d’une rare distinction; elle s’y recommande encore par le dessin bien accentu\u00e9 sous l’enveloppe et par la largeur et la grande surete du modele. C’est la le faire des artistes de race, et c\u2019est par l\u00e1 que ce tres seduisant pastel est mieux qu’une oeuvre charmante. Cet art exquis, si eminemment francais du pastel Eva Gonzales le faisait revivre en s’inspirant bien plus des gradnes traditions des Latour et des Perronneau que des graces de la Rosalba.\u201d<\/p>

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    As her artistic career progressed, Gonzal\u00e8s earned increasing praise and recognition for her works. At the beginning of her career in the early 1870s, when her practice was relatively restricted, she received critical reviews dismissing her work with disdainful language rooted in gendered tropes. As her technique matured and she engaged with the Impressionist vanguard, […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-43","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/43","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=43"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/43\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=43"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":15,"date":"2021-02-21T19:44:13","date_gmt":"2021-02-21T19:44:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=15"},"modified":"2021-05-03T17:22:03","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T17:22:03","slug":"bibliography","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/bibliography\/","title":{"rendered":"Bibliography"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    Master\u2019s Capstone Project submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Art History. <\/i><\/p>

    Chair: Dr. Juliet Bellow<\/i><\/p>

    Reader: Dr. Kim Butler<\/i><\/p>

    2021, American University, Washington DC<\/i><\/p>

    Primary sources<\/u><\/p>

    All primary sources for this capstone were accessed through gallica.fr, the digital database and search engine of the Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale de France.<\/p>

    Aubert, Francis. \u201cLe Salon\u201d La France<\/em>, June 2, 1874.<\/p>

    Castagnary, Jules. \u201cLe Salon de 1874,\u201d Le Si\u00e8cle, <\/em>May 26, 1874.<\/p>

    Grimm, Thomas. \u201cLe Clan des Femmes Peintres\u201d, Le Petit journal<\/em>, May 30, 1870.<\/p>

    V\u00e9ron, Eug\u00e8ne. \u201cMadame Eva Gonzal\u00e8s\u201d Courrier de l\u2019art: Chronique Hebdomadaire des ateliers, des mus\u00e9es, des expositions, des ventes publiques.\u201d,<\/em> January 2, 1885.<\/p>

    Secondary sources<\/u><\/p>

    Bell, Esther. \u201cDegas, Millinery, and The Grand Tradition.\u201d In Degas Impressionism and the Paris Millinery Trade, <\/em>edited by Simon Kelly and Esther Bell, 83-103. San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, 2017.<\/p>

    Boime, Albert. \u201cMaria Deraismes and Eva Gonzal\u00e8s: A Feminist Critique of \u201cUne Loge Aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Des Italiens\u201d.\u201d Woman\u2019s Art Journal<\/em> 15, no. 2 (1994): 31-37.<\/p>

    Clement, Russell T., Annick Houze Christine Erbolato-Ramsey, The Women Impressionist: A Sourcebook<\/em>. Santa Barbara: Westport, 2000.<\/p>

    Garb, Tamar. The Painted Face: Portraits of Women in France, 1814-1914. <\/em>New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.<\/p>

    Gaze, Delia. Dictionary of Women Artists. <\/em>Chicago: Fitzroy-Dearborne, 1997.<\/p>

    Grant, Carol Jane. “Eva Gonzales (1849-1883): An Examination of the Artist’s Style and Subject Matter. (Volumes I and II).” PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 1994.<\/p>

    Hunter, Mary. \u201cExpert Hands, Infectious Touch: Painting and Pregnancy in Berthe Morisot\u2019s\u00a0The Mother and Sister of the Artist\u00a0<\/i>1869-1870)\u201d In Andre Dombrowski (ed),\u00a0Companion to Impressionism<\/em>. <\/i>Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, expected publication September 2021.<\/p>

    Hyde, Melissa. \u201cThe Makeup of the Marquise.\u201d In Making Up the Rococo: Fran\u00e7ois Boucher and His Critics, <\/em>107-144. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2006.<\/p>

    J. Paul Getty Museum. \u201cPeasants in Pastel: Jean-Francois and the Pastel Revival.\u201d Gallery Text. Last modified 2019.\u00a0http:\/\/www.getty.edu\/art\/exhibitions\/millet_pastels\/downloads\/pastels_gallery_text.pdf<\/p>

    Kalba, Laura Anne. \u201cImpressionism\u2019s Chemical Aesthetic: The Materials and Meanings of Color.\u201d In Color in the Age of Impressionism: Commerce, Technology, Art<\/em>, 69- 119. University Park: Penn State University Press, 2017.<\/p>

    Kelly, Simon. \u201cSilk and Feather and Satin and Straw: Degas, Women, and the Paris Millinery Trade.\u201d In Degas Impressionism and the Paris Millinery Trade, <\/em>edited by Simon Kelly and Esther Bell, 17-59. San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, 2017.<\/p>

    Kendall, Richard. \u201cThe Metaphor of Craft: Tradition, Draughtmanship, and the Transformation of Degas\u2019s Technique.\u201d In Beyond Impressionism,<\/em> 57-87. London: National Gallery Publications, 1996.<\/p>

    Kenny, Ruth. \u201cThe Craze for Pastel,\u201d BP Spotlight: The Craze for Pastel<\/em> (blog). The Tate,<\/em> Last modified 2014. https:\/\/www.tate.org.uk\/whats-on\/tate-britain\/display\/bp-spotlight-craze-pastel\/essay<\/a><\/p>

    Le, Brun, Charles. \u201cThoughts on M. Blanchard\u2019s Discourse on the Merits of Colour.\u201d In Art in Theory 1648-1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas,<\/em> Charles Harrison, Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger, 182-185. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2000.<\/p>

    Lichtenstein, Jacqueline. \u201cMaking up Representation: The Risk of Femininity.\u201d Representation,<\/em> no. 20 (Autumn 1987): 77-87.<\/p>

    Monnier, Genevi\u00e8ve. \u201cPastel\u201d In Grove Art Online<\/em>. Oxford University Press, 2003. https:\/\/www.oxfordartonline.com\/groveart\/view\/10.1093\/gao\/9781884446054.001.0001\/oao-9781884446054-e-7000065711<\/a><\/p>

    National Gallery. \u201cEdouard Manet Eva Gonzal\u00e8s.<\/em>\u201d Accessed February 12, 2021. https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/edouard-manet-eva-gonzales<\/em><\/p>

    Sainsaulieu, Marie-Caroline Sainsaulieu and de Mons, Jacques.\u00a0Eva Gonzal\u00e8s: 1849-1883: \u00c9tude critique et catalogue raisonn\u00e9<\/em>. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale, 1990.<\/p>

    Schenck, Kimberly. \u201cAn Experiment in Pastel and Watercolor by Degas,\u201d National Gallery of Art Blog. National Gallery of Art<\/em>, November 17, 2020. https:\/\/www.nga.gov\/blog\/pastel-watercolor-degas.html<\/a><\/p>

    Sell, Stacey. The Touch of Color: Pastels at the National Gallery of Art<\/em>. Washington D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 2019.\u00a0https:\/\/www.nga.gov\/content\/dam\/ngaweb\/exhibitions\/pdfs\/2019\/touch-of-color-pastels.pdf<\/p>

    Shelley, Marjorie. \u201cPainting in the Dry Manner: The Flourishing of the Pastel in 18th<\/sup> Century Europe.\u201d The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin<\/em> 68, no. 4 (2011): 4-56.<\/p>

    Silverman, Debora. \u201cThe Third Republic and the Rococo as National Patrimony\u201d In Art Nouveau in Fin de Si\u00e8cle France: Politics, Psychology and Style, <\/em>142-159. Oakland: University of California Press, 1989.<\/p>

    Tucker, Paul. \u201cThe First Impressionist Exhibition and Monet\u2019s Impression, Sunrise: A Tale of Timing, Commerce, and Patriotism.\u201d\u00a0Art History<\/em>\u00a07, no. 4 (1984): 465-476.<\/p>

    Werner, Alfred. Degas: Pastels. <\/em>New York City: Watson-Guptill, 1998.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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    Master\u2019s Capstone Project submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Art History. Chair: Dr. Juliet Bellow Reader: Dr. Kim Butler 2021, American University, Washington DC Primary sources All primary sources for this capstone were […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-15","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":13,"date":"2021-02-21T19:44:13","date_gmt":"2021-02-21T19:44:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/lv1728a\/?page_id=13"},"modified":"2021-05-03T17:06:37","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T17:06:37","slug":"eva-gonzales-works-in-pastel","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/eva-gonzales-works-in-pastel\/","title":{"rendered":"Gonzal\u00e8s’s Pastels: Crafting a Professional Identity"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t

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    Figure 3. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, Une Loge aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Italiens. 1874. Oil on canvas. 98 x 130 cm. Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France.<\/p><\/div>

    The revival of pastel in the 1870s and 80s established a foundation for Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s adoption of this medium, which emerged as a vehicle for bold aesthetic experimentation within the strictures of gender decorum. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s works in pastel exhibited Impressionistic technical features in this period that diverged from her early approximation of Manet\u2019s style. Her facture became bolder as she exploited the potential of the medium, varying her brush strokes to convey effects of motion and refining the use of colored shadows.<\/p>

    In so doing, Gonzal\u00e8s can be understood to have engaged in the \u201cgame play\u201d of \u201creference,\u201d \u201cdeference,\u201d and \u201cdifference\u201d that Griselda Pollock has identified as a common strategy for avant-garde artists. According to Pollock, \u201creference\u201d is the act of alluding to established artists; \u201cdeference\u201d demonstrates reverence toward prevailing artistic norms; \u201cdifference\u201d constitutes the artist\u2019s originality. The stakes of this \u201cgame play\u201d were especially high for women artists, given that\u2014as in the case of Gonzal\u00e8s\u2014their work was often perceived as simply derivative of their male mentors and peers. Pollock\u2019s model helps situate Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s practice in a more nuanced light, as the artist can be seen to have used pastel in order to posit \u201creference\u201d to Degas; to pay \u201cdeference\u201d to norms of female behavior; and to establish her \u201cdifference\u201d from Manet.<\/p>

    \"\"

    Figure 4. Edouard Manet. Olympia.1863. Oil on canvas. 130 x 190 cm. Musee d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France<\/p><\/div>

    The imperative to establish her independence from Manet became clear when her painting Une Loge aux Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italiens <\/em>(Fig 3) was rejected from the Salon of 1874.[46] The jury described this large-scale, ambitious oil painting as having a certain \u201cmasculine vigor,\u201d inviting speculation that Manet himself had a hand in executing the work, as he had in Berthe Morisot\u2019s painting La Lecture<\/em>. [47] Whether or not there was a direct intervention, many similarities with Manet\u2019s signature style are evident. In addition to the bouquet\u2019s resemblance to the one in Manet\u2019s Olympia <\/em>(Fig. 4), the detached gaze and demeanor of both subjects in the painting recall the comportment of figures in Le Balcon <\/em>(The Balcony,<\/em>1868-1869; Fig 11). The challenging of Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s own hand in her work presented a motivation for the artist to separate her art from her teacher\u2019s, and to develop a style that was viewed as neither derivative nor too masculine.<\/p>

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    Figure 11. Edouard Manet. Le Balcon (The Balcony). 1868-1869. Oil on canvas. 170 x 124.5 cm. Musee d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France.<\/p><\/div>

    \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 By contrast, the pastel that Gonzal\u00e8s submitted to the Salon, La Nich\u00e9e (The Nest,<\/em> 1874; Fig. 12), was accepted by the jury that year. La Nich\u00e9e<\/em> was likely accepted due to the perception of feminine decorum in both technique and subject matter. An interior, intimate moment centered on an elegant beauty rendered in soft pastel colors, the work\u2019s delicacy offered a decided contrast to the \u201cmasculine\u201d qualities of Une Loge aux Theatre Italiens<\/em>.[48] The model sits before a table covered in a light and airy fabric, bathed in light pouring in from the window on the left. The hues of pink, blue, and grey dominate the picture and are harmoniously blended to give the composition a decidedly \u201cfeminine\u201d surface that held evident appeal for the Salon jury members.<\/p>

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    Figure 12. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, La Nich\u00e9e. 1874. Pastel on paper mounted on canvas. 93.8 x 74.3 cm. Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Orsay, Paris, France.<\/p><\/div>

    After 1874, Gonzal\u00e8s began to add more elements of abstraction within her works in ways that departed from the Manetian style of her early work. For example, The Bouquet of Violets <\/em>(1877-1878; Fig. 13) pastel on paper depicts a woman in a pink dress handling a bouquet of violets she prepares to arrange in a blue vase. The techniques Gonzal\u00e8s used reflects current Impressionistic painting techniques. Gonzal\u00e8s layered color upon color to create the shade and tonality she desired. She blended yellows and pinks into the slate blue hue of the wall behind the sitter in order to create the illusion of light reflecting and creating dimensionality within the wall. This same technique is used on the back of the dress, where Gonzal\u00e8s employed shades of blue and orange to create a sense of volume in the fabric. Instead of blending the colors into one another here, the strokes are distinctly layered on top. The use of short indistinct strokes, with the impression of blurring around the sitter\u2019s head, creates the effect of the sitter turning towards the viewer. These technical strategies appear designed to engage with the Impressionists\u2019 interest in portraying a specific, and fleeting, moment in time.<\/p>

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    Figure 14. Eva Gonzal\u00e8s, The Milliner. 1882. Pastel on canvas. 45 x 37 cm. The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States.<\/p><\/div>

    \u00a0<\/em>Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s The Milliner<\/em> (1877; Fig. 14) further showcases her preoccupation with Impressionist techniques and subjects. In this example, we can see the way Pollock\u2019s \u201cgame play\u201d operated in practice. The Milliner<\/em> is an act of \u201creference\u201d in its clear relation to Degas\u2019s favored subject matter.[49] The work features a seated female milliner with a box of assorted artificial flowers on her lap. The sitter has been identified as a garnisseuse<\/em>, a milliner responsible for decorating hats with flowers and plumage.[50] On the level of technique, too, we see \u201creference\u201d to characteristics of Degas\u2019s work. The short bold strokes of the pastel give the work the appearance of speedy execution, suggesting the hectic atmosphere typical of a millinery shop. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s use of crosshatching and painterly strokes, and the use of color to add shadow, aligns her technique with that of the Impressionists. The act of \u201cdeference\u201d is reflected in the use of the pastel medium and its evocation of gender decorum. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s \u201cdifference\u201d lies in her transformation of precedents to establish her own distinctive aesthetic through her composition and color palette. Unlike the muddy, muted palette of Degas\u2019s Modiste <\/em>(1875), Gonzal\u00e8s employed a markedly bright, colorful range of hues that must have made this work stand out from other pastels produced at that time.[51]<\/p>

    \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0These acts of reference, deference, and difference endeavored to remove Gonzal\u00e8s from the shadow of Manet in order to develop her own artistic identity. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s choice to utilize the pastel medium allowed her to strike a delicate balance between traditional gender norms and experimentalism. Gonzal\u00e8s strategically adhered to convention in showing at the Paris Salon and using pastel. At the same time, she aligned herself with the artistic vanguard in Paris and formulated a distinctive approach to their characteristic subjects and techniques.<\/a><\/p>

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    46. Gaze,\u00a0597.<\/p>

    47. Mary Hunter, Mary Hunter, \u201cExpert Hands, Infectious Touch: Painting and Pregnancy in Berthe Morisot\u2019s\u00a0The Mother and Sister of the Artist\u00a0<\/i>(1869-1870)\u201d In Andre Dombrowski (ed),\u00a0Companion to Impressionism <\/i>(Hoboken:Wiley Blackwell, expected publication September 2021).<\/p>

    48. Gaze,\u00a0597.<\/p>

    49. Esther Bell, \u201cDegas, Millinery, and The Grand Tradition,\u201d In Simon Kelly and Esther Bell, eds.,\u00a0Degas, Impressionism, and the Paris Millinery Trade\u00a0<\/i>(San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, 2017), 83.<\/p>

    50. Simon Kelly, \u201cSilk and Feather, Satin and Straw: Degas, Women, and The Paris Millinery Trade,\u201d In Simon Kelly and Esther Bell, eds.,\u00a0Degas, Impressionism, and the Paris Millinery Trade\u00a0<\/i>(San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, 2017),\u00a022.<\/p>

    51. Bell, 83.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t

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    The revival of pastel in the 1870s and 80s established a foundation for Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s adoption of this medium, which emerged as a vehicle for bold aesthetic experimentation within the strictures of gender decorum. Gonzal\u00e8s\u2019s works in pastel exhibited Impressionistic technical features in this period that diverged from her early approximation of Manet\u2019s style. Her facture […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3583,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-13","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/13","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3583"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/13\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/a-delicate-strategy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}]