ENDNOTES

[1] See David Bindman, The Image of the Black in Western Art. New edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2018; Robert Davis, “The Geography of Slaving in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1500-1800,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 37, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 863-879; Paul H. D. Kaplan, The Rise of the Black Magus in WesternArt. Ann Arbor: UMI (1985); Sally Mckee. “Domestic Slavery in Renaissance Italy” Slavery & Abolition 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2008):  314; T. F. Earle and Kate Lowe, Black Africans in Renaissance Europe. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005; Natalie Zemon Davis, Kate Lowe,  Joaneath Spicer, and Ben Vinson. “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum, 2012.

[2] Dominique de Menil (1908 –1997) was a French American art collector, philanthropist, founder of the Menil Collection. In addition to becoming known as collectors and patrons of art, John and Dominique de Menil were vocal champions of human rights worldwide.

[3] Petrarca, Opere di Francesco Petrarca, X.2, 956–8.

[4] Katherine George, “The Civilized West Looks at Primitive Africa: 1400-1800 a Study in Ethnocentrism.” Isis 49, no. 1 (March 1, 1958): 63.

[5] Sally Mckee, “Domestic Slavery in Renaissance Italy.” Slavery & Abolition 29, no. 3 (September 1, 2008):  314.

[6] Hans Werner Debrunner, Presence and Prestige: Africans in Europe. A History of Africans in Europe before 1918. Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien, (1979): 17.

[7] Robert Hornback, Racism and Early Blackface Comic Traditions: from the Old World to the New. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, (2018): 4.

[8] Debrunner, 33.

[9] Ibid., 33-36.

[10] Kate Lowe, “Visual Representations of an Elite: African Ambassadors and Rulers in Renaissance Europe,” in “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum (2012): 100.

[11] Ibid., 220.

[12] Stephen J. Milner, At the Margins: Minority Groups in Premodern Italy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005): 219-220.

[13] Edelgard E. DuBruck and Even Yael, Fifteenth-Century Studies Vol. 27: A Special Issue on Violence in Fifteenth-Century Text and Image. Woodbridge, Suffolk; Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer, 2002. (2002): 166.

[14] DuBruck and Yael. 226.

[15] Ibid., 223.

[16] McKee, “Inherited Status and Slavery in Late Medieval Italy and Venetian Crete.” Past & Present, no. 182, (February 2004): 33.

[17] Archivio di Stato di Venezia (hereafter ASV), Archivio di Duca di Candia (here- after ADC), Memoriali, busta 29, fasc. 7, fo. 33v, 16 Mar. 1345.

[18] McKee, “Domestic Slavery in Renaissance Italy,” 320.

[19] Kate Lowe, “The Lives of African Slaves and People of African Descent in Renaissance Europe,” in “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum, (2012): 13-14.

[20] Milner, 230-23; Because of their adopted Christian names or names given to them through the process of being bought or sold; however, slaves’ origins do not emerge easily from documents.

[21] Ibid., 309; In southern Italy, the presence of enslaved people is detectable much earlier and persists much longer, due in part to Sicily’s commercial and political relations with Aragon and its proximity to the markets of North Africa.

[22] Ibid., 309.

[23] Ibid., 305; For more on the economic growth and trade of Antwerp, Michael Limberger, “’No town in the world Provides more’: Economics of Agglomeration and the Golden Age of Antwerp,” in Urban Achievement in Early Modern Europe: Golden Ages in Antwerp, Amsterdam, and London. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (2001): 39.

[24] Elmer Kolfin, “‘Black Models in Dutch Art Between 1550 and 1800,” in Black is Beautiful: Rubens to Dumas. Vincent Boele and Elmer Kolfin. Amsterdam: De Nieuwe Kerk, (2008): 71.

[25] Peter Burke, Antwerp, a Metropolis in Comparative Perspective (Ghent: Martial and Snoeck, 1993): x.

[26] Andrea Pearson, Gardens of Love and the Limits of Morality in Early Netherlandish Art (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 268.

[27] As discussed by Alisa LaGamma, Heroic Africans: Legendary Leaders, Iconic Sculptures (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011), 26-29, who suggested that some works now described as waist pendants may have been pectoral adornments.

[28] Although Kwame Nimako and Glenn Willemsen, The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, Abolition, and Emancipation(2011): 53, argued that there were no clear regulations for the governing of trade routes for transportation of enslaved people at the time.

[29] Esther Schreuder,  “‘Blacks’ in Court Culture in the Period 1300-1900,” in Black is Beautiful: Rubens to Dumas. Vincent Boele and Elmer Kolfin. Amsterdam: De Nieuwe Kerk, (2008): 21.

[30] H.W. Debrunner, Presence and Prestige: Africans in Europe. A history of Africans in Europe before 1918. Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien, (1979): 34.

[31] Debrunner, 92.

[32] Alain Locke. The new Negro: An Interpretation. New York: Johnson Reprint Corp. (1968): 138-139. Locke commented that “contrary to the Italian tradition of romanticizing the ‘Negro,’ as far back as the early 1500s, Flemish, Dutch and German artists leaned strongly toward a realistic portrayal of the Negro…what are obviously carefully executed type-studies.”

[33] A. Dürer in E.G. Holt,  A Documentary History of Art Vol. 1: The Middle Ages and the Renaissance. NJ: Princeton, (1981): 325

[34] Erwin Panofsky, Problems in Titian, Mostly Iconographic. New York: New York University Press, (1969): 157; refers in passing to “the negro girl somewhat incongruously attending Diana.”

[35] Paul H. D. Kaplan,  “Isabella d’ Este and black African women,” in “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum (2012): 134.

[36] McKee, “Domestic Slavery in Renaissance Italy.” 312.

[37] Kaplan, The Rise of the Black Magus in WesternArt. Ann Arbor: UMI (1985): 105.

[38] Ibid.,119.

[39] Albert Boime, The Art of Exclusion: Representing Blacks in the NineteenthCentury. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, (1990): 9.

[40] Alain Locke, The New Negro: An interpretation. New York: Johnson Reprint Corp, (1968): 138.

[41] McKee, “Domestic Slavery in Renaissance Italy,” 312.

[42] Kaplan, “Isabella d’ Este and black African women,” in “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum (2012): 125.

[43] Kaplan, 127.

[44] Ibid., 134.

[45] Kaplan, “Titian’s ‘Laura Dianti’ and the Origins of the Motif of the Black Page in Portraiture: I”. Antichità Viva. (1982): 12; Lodovico’s nickname was attributed to him because of his dark complexion and scholars believe Lodovico was of mixed African descent, making him a wealthy person of color during this time. For more information see Catherine Fletcher, The Black Prince of Florence: The Spectacular Life and Treacherous World of Alessandro de’ Medici. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.

[46] Kate Lowe and Joaneath Spicer, “Revealing the African Presence in Renaissance Europe.” Baltimore: Walters Art Museum (2012): 149

[47] Alessandro Luzio, Buffoni, nani e schiavi dei Gonzaga ai tempi d’ Isabella d’ Este, NuovaAntologia, seri 3, vol. XXXIX-XXXV. (1890-1891): XXXIV,625.

[48] Luzio, 70; concluded that black Africans under the age of 12 and over 30 were less expensive because they were less marketable.

[49] Ruth Mellinkoff, Outcasts: Signs of Otherness in Northern European Art of the Late Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, (1993): LII.

[50] Michel Pastoureau, The Devil’s Cloth. A History of Stripes and Striped Fabric.New York: Columbia University Press, (2001): xiii.

[51] Pastoureau, 2.

[52] Ibid., 3.

[53] Other examples of Christ’s tormentors as black Africans are seen in the fourteenth-century Luttrell Psalter’s Flagellation of Christand a fourteenth-century embroidered altar cloth of the Betrayal and Arrest of Christ.  

[54] Mellinkoff, 20.

[55] Ibid., 56.

[56] Elizabeth McGrath and Jean Michel Massing, The Slave in European Art : from Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem. London: Warburg Institute, (2012): 17.

[57] McGrath and Massing, 17.

[58] Bindman, ”Subjectivity and Slavery in Portraiture: From Courtly to Commercial Societies” in Agnes I. Lugo-Ortiz and Angela Rosenthal, Slave portraiture in the Atlantic world. New York: Cambridge University Press, (2013): 71.

[59] Bindman, ”Subjectivity and Slavery in Portraiture: From Courtly to Commercial Societies,” 109.

[60] Ibid., 109.

[61] Mellinkoff, 55.

[62] Annemarie Jordan, “Images of an Empire. Slaves in the Lisbon household and court of Catherine of Austria,” in Black Africans in Renaissance Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005): 176.

[63] Jordan, 174.

[64] Ibid., 178.

[65] Titus Kaphar, “Can Art Amend History?” TED, August 2017.