[{"id":461,"date":"2025-10-21T15:36:34","date_gmt":"2025-10-21T15:36:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=461"},"modified":"2025-10-21T15:37:40","modified_gmt":"2025-10-21T15:37:40","slug":"ai-best-practices","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/submissions\/ai-best-practices\/","title":{"rendered":"AI Best Practices"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center has-white-color has-text-color has-background has-large-font-size\" style=\"background-color:#034775\"><em>AI Best Practice<\/em>s<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-medium-font-size\"><em><strong>Review our AI Best Practices before submission!<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-medium-font-size\">The <em>Food-Fueled <\/em>team takes AI usage seriously, especially considering its fast growth and prominence in the academic world. For the best chance of publication, ensure your submission adheres to our general AI guidelines below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Please carefully review our complete <em>Food-Fueled <\/em>Submissions AI Best Practices below.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div data-wp-interactive=\"core\/file\" class=\"wp-block-file\"><object data-wp-bind--hidden=\"!state.hasPdfPreview\" hidden class=\"wp-block-file__embed\" data=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/10\/Food-Fueled-AI-Policy.pdf\" type=\"application\/pdf\" style=\"width:100%;height:600px\" aria-label=\"Embed of Food-Fueled AI Policy.\"><\/object><a id=\"wp-block-file--media-fe7e7bd6-4e95-4f13-b896-91cd232b63cd\" href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/10\/Food-Fueled-AI-Policy.pdf\">Food-Fueled AI Policy<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/10\/Food-Fueled-AI-Policy.pdf\" class=\"wp-block-file__button wp-element-button\" download aria-describedby=\"wp-block-file--media-fe7e7bd6-4e95-4f13-b896-91cd232b63cd\">Download<\/a><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center has-medium-font-size\">We look forward to reading all submissions and hope to build a quality collection of work. Please direct any further questions to <a href=\"mailto:inquiries_ff@american.edu\"><strong>inquiries_ff@american.edu<\/strong><\/a>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>AI Best Practices Review our AI Best Practices before submission! The Food-Fueled team takes AI usage seriously, especially considering its fast growth and prominence in the academic world. For the best chance of publication, ensure your submission adheres to our general AI guidelines below. Please carefully review our complete Food-Fueled Submissions AI Best Practices below. [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":79,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-461","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/461","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=461"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/461\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/79"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=461"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":445,"date":"2025-05-05T20:33:30","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:33:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=445"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:33:31","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:33:31","slug":"why-apples-are-more-expensive-than-twinkies-a-historical-analysis-of-americas-deficient-food-system-and-recommendations-for-a-path-forward","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/why-apples-are-more-expensive-than-twinkies-a-historical-analysis-of-americas-deficient-food-system-and-recommendations-for-a-path-forward\/","title":{"rendered":"Why Apples are More Expensive than Twinkies: A Historical Analysis of America\u2019s Deficient Food System and Recommendations for a Path Forward"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Ryder Wentzel, American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Wentzel, Ryder. 2025. \u201cWhy Apples Are More Expensive Than Twinkies: A Historical Analysis of America\u2019s Deficient Food System and Recommendations for a Path Forward\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00023. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28908092\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908092<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/why-apples-are-more-expensive-than-twinkies-a-historical-analysis-of-americas-deficient-food-system-and-recommendations-for-a-path-forward\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/why-apples-are-more-expensive-than-twinkies-a-historical-analysis-of-americas-deficient-food-system-and-recommendations-for-a-path-forward\/<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Why-Apples-are-More-Expensive-than-Twinkies-A-Historical-Analysis-of-Americas-Deficient-Food-System-and-Recommendations-for-a-Path-Forward.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Abstract<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The food culture of the United States is characterized by cheap, ultra-processed foods detrimental to individual health, societal health, and national security. In attempting to pinpoint when the country shifted to prioritizing the production of fast calories epitomizing today&#8217;s food landscape, this paper identifies the domestic and international factors responsible for this development through a descriptive approach. The fact is that the country\u2019s contemporary production and distribution systems are tied to systemic agricultural changes of the 1970s, whereupon internal dynamics and world developments created the necessity for quick calories. In the second half of this paper, my focus transitions into outlining potential changes and ways forward to promote sustainable and nutritional systems that can be integrated in American society. While the state of nutrition in America is quite poor, converting to local and regional food systems in addition to changing agricultural policies can cultivate a healthier, stronger society.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Introduction<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>At any American grocery store, consumers are likely to find both ultra-processed foods like Twinkies and nutritional products such as apples. Those who examine their respective prices may be shocked to find that products like Twinkies are cheaper than most fruits. This dichotomy encapsulates the contemporary American food system\u2014a set of infrastructure, policies, and priorities that promotes the production and consumption of unhealthy, ultra-processed foods over the accessibility and affordability of quality options that serve to enrich both diet and lifestyle. The first part of this paper uncovers the driving historical factors responsible for the formation of the modern food complex, displaying how these conditions led to the priorities cementing agricultural production and distribution today. Then, my analysis shifts to synthesize the most promising, realistic ideas addressing how the United States can modify its agricultural industrial complex to foster prevailing nutritional needs. Although many propose that the deficiencies of the national food system can be attributed to currently inadequate food policy and influential parties roadblocking institutional change, the incomprehensive food system in place today is the result of structural changes inherent to the 1970s that transpired in response to evolving domestic and international demands for food consumption and security. Considering the deeply rooted issues associated with a food complex no longer reflective of contemporary needs, systemically modifying the agricultural industrial complex will provide a practical pathway conducive to meaningful change and current demands.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Historical Factors Driving Institutional Changes&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The modern American food system was forged by several influential factors, one of the most notable being rapid population growth during the 1950s and 1960s. In the Annual Review of Nutrition analysis on food structure developments in the wake of this trend, Woteki et al. (2020) detail, \u201c&#8230;the drivers of food system changes&#8230;include&#8230;demographic factors including population growth\u201d (451). As domestic demand for food grew, the agricultural sector needed new systems to amplify food supply. It did so by elevating the production of cheap calories through new policies, subsidies, and programs. As a result, \u201cAmerican farm policy was guided by a cheap food policy that encouraged farmers to produce as much as possible\u201d (Woteki et al. 2020, 449). The implications of this constitutive framework are grand and continue to have enduring impacts today.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>By cultivating an updated food network, Congress designed an infrastructure revolved around generating the maximum number of calories possible. The Agricultural and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 encouraged a productivity-driven agricultural model that exhibited a correlation between new policy and evolving domestic demands. In contemporary America, this model of productivity is of little value, for enough food exists to exceed the minimum nutritional requirement twofold (<em>The Washington Post<\/em> 2023). The system devised to meet 1970s food demand rendered the existence of food more important than that food\u2019s quality, and this construction has sparked the externality of nutritionally deficient foods in American diets, which serve to perpetuate rather than solve modern food problems related to nutrient intake. Leading these problems is insulin resistance, a fundamental factor of diet-related diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease, all of which are driven by the excessively carbohydrate-rich diets commonplace today (Singh, Ghai, and Singh Bedi 2022, 56). These diets, in turn, catalyze the ongoing public health crisis by corroding society\u2019s physical condition, mental wellbeing, and overall performance. In incorporating new policies and agricultural practices to expand food supply, Congress solidified an agricultural industrial complex that normalizes lacking diets and pervasive disease.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While internal population growth heavily contributed to the creation of an agricultural complex no longer reflective of current needs, the prevalence of nationwide food insecurity furthered the need for revisionary policies. As the economic growth of the 1950s slowed and transitioned into the sweeping poverty and inequality of the 1960s, millions were left without funds to consume fulfilling diets (Mayer 1972, 237). This development, coupled with a lack of consumable food during the 1960s, led to reductions in the quality of lived experiences because of food insecurity (Brown 1973, 3-4). Correspondingly, lawmakers of all levels tried to organize changes by adjusting \u201c&#8230;regulatory aspects of food production and supply\u201d (Mayer 1972, 239). Social circumstances demanded an updated approach to nutrition policy, and the government responded by drastically reorienting state-sponsored agriculture.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Institutional features such as mass subsidization and output-driven policy brought the supply and demand of food into equilibrium, providing more calories to individuals in need of them. Further, initiatives to \u201c&#8230;expand the area under cultivation\u201d and \u201c&#8230;raise the output of the existing cultivated area\u201d (Brown 1973, 7) to reduce food insecurity were achieved through government-sponsored shifts to large agribusiness farming, the incorporation of fertilizers and pesticides, and heavy subsidies. The amalgamation of these newly implemented structures accomplished their goal: to reduce food insecurity, hunger, and malnutrition by providing an abundance of food.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite the initial success of new production networks, these policies were short-sighted and quickly became detrimental to public welfare. Specifically, the implementation of this system has impaired contemporary health in the following ways: (1) the overconsumption of ultra-processed foods, (2) reduced accessibility to nutritious foods, and (3) a difficult to modify food framework. As two lawyers promoting policy as a tool to ameliorate social issues, Beyranevand and Leib (2017) link these factors to an imbalanced subsidy system, which champions the allocation of funds to commodity crops while providing only a fragment of available resources toward the cultivation of fruits and vegetables (233). This highlights how longstanding agricultural policies shaping production incentivize the consumption of \u201c&#8230;highly processed and unhealthy foods&#8230;the very foods the Dietary Guidelines of America recommend limiting\u201d while the country simultaneously \u201c&#8230;does not grow enough fruits and vegetables to support healthy diets\u201d (Beyranevand and Lieb 2017, 233). In mitigating food insecurity, the United States triggered the larger problem of waning public health as consumers became psychologically forced into poor diets.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Evolving state objectives further pushed the United States toward a productivity-based agricultural structure. Newfound national interests to mitigate world hunger, stimulate development in low-income countries, and financially profit from food exports during the 1970s motivated the United States to export more food (Paarlberg 1982, 110; Abrams and Harshbarger 1979, 4). With higher exports in mind, there was a 21% increase in acreage allocated for agricultural purposes between 1970 and 1980 (United States Department of Agriculture 2019, 11). Additionally, food turnover, derived from the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and the production of fast-growing staple crops, improved as strategic input tools like pesticides were increasingly integrated (Popp, Pet\u0151, and Nagy 2013, 246). These advancements made the mass exportation of commodity crops possible. Abrams and Harshbarger (1979) quantify greater U.S. involvement in international agricultural trade by stating, \u201cU.S. agricultural exports have more than quadrupled, rising from $6.7 billion in fiscal 1970 to $27.3 billion in fiscal 1978\u201d (3). Guided by aims to reduce world hunger and capitalize on net export opportunities, the United States used international trends to rationalize increasing food productivity. Consequently, this structure has come at the expanding cost of public wellbeing as diets are plagued by cheap calories enabled by the mass production processes honed to export food. As the United States confronted both domestic and international challenges and opportunities to reform its food system, policymakers set forth practices that are now harmful to the public good.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The outdated nature of these agricultural policies are hinderances to national health that must be reversed, but the parties these policies gave power to are now interfering with institutional change. This context is comprised of two powerful entities: large agribusiness firms and Congressional members. Since agribusiness monopolies have and continue to utilize large-scale lobbying to prevent reform contradicting current subsidy and production systems, many individuals postulate that changes capable of improving the food system will be denied by Congress (Stewart 2013). Bellemare and Carnes (2015) second this line of thought, referencing that members of Congress often deny instrumental nutrition policy changes to maintain a stream of financial contributions from the benefiters of contemporary policy (25). The current relationship between the agricultural industrial context and Congress has slowed change temporarily, but the reforms discussed in the following paragraphs possess incentives that outweigh the influence of lobbying, thereby allowing progress to be realized if pursued.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Systemic Changes to Bolster Nutrition and Efficiency&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite the extensivity of problems associated with the modern food system, reform to improve diets and to reduce the quantity of ultra-processed foods can be accomplished through alterations in food frameworks, production systems, and distributive operations. In turn, these modifications to food infrastructure would enhance national nutrition and economic welfare, spur reductions in disease, and foster more sustainable environmental practices.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Such reform can most efficiently be achieved through new government policy, where obsolete incentives and insurance programs are replaced with policies that enrich consumer diets and lives. Namely, the institution of new production, input, and trade policies will cumulate in change, for Hawkes (2007) elaborates that these agricultural policy levers heavily impact the type and quantity of food produced, which processes are utilized, and when food is grown domestically (315). These factors have strong implications, for altering production policies through specific price supports results in the \u201c&#8230;increasing availability of the targeted foods&#8230;\u201d (Hawkes 2007, 316). Furthermore, modifying input policies such as infrastructure \u201c&#8230;stimulate farmers to choose certain crops over others, thus increasing the availability of those foods\u201d and changing trade policies like export incentives \u201c&#8230;has the effect of increasing the availability and lowering the prices of targeted foods\u201d (Hawkes 2007, 316). Put simply, changing policy allows the government to improve the quantity and affordability of nutrient rich foods associated with good health, thereby bettering diets and tackling health problems. Changing the prevailing food complex will be difficult, but pursuing reform through policy measures will secure a food system capable of improving nutrition and overall health.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To complement changes in agricultural policy, converting food production from large- scale corporations to more local and regional food systems can reframe food infrastructure. The value in this transition lies in increased accessibility to food for nearby consumers and the integration of shorter supply chains, two factors that serve to increase food security, nutritional value, and environmental sustainability. The United States Department of Agriculture (2025) confirms these benefits, describing that \u201c&#8230;local and regional foods&#8230;create more sustainable, resilient, heathier, and equitable food systems.\u201d Moving the consolidation of food production from large businesses to small and medium-sized operations will enhance the nutritional quality, accessibility, and reliability of foods to surrounding populations. Despite the overt benefits of localized systems, proponents of the monopolistic agribusiness structure attempt to refute the movement by stating that the shift will lead to the loss of farming jobs. However, local and regional food systems employ more farmers and bolster benefits of the profession, for emphasis on local production creates market conditions for more farmers to enter, solidify themselves, and benefit from supplying a greater number of people. In analyzing how local food systems correlate with job growth and economic advantages through a six city, multi-year study, the Center for Good Food Purchasing (2023) certified that investment in local food system contributes \u201c&#8230;billions of dollars of economic output and hundreds of thousands of jobs\u201d (51). Furthermore, local and regional systems foster sustainable and viable connections between land, farmer, and consumer as reduced distance from the farm to the kitchen table results in greater freshness and nutritional quality. Redistributing who is producing foods will go a long way in forming a more nutritious, sustainable agricultural network with priorities of human health and wellbeing above corporate profit.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Building on the positive effects of new government policies and production networks, imposing regulations on targeted foods and changing food marketing could further strengthen the quality of diets. Introducing a tax on food known to be nutritionally deficient and involved in the production process or on foods recognized as catalysts for nutrition-related diseases would limit their distribution and consumption. Nutrition expert and agricultural economist Pinstrup-Anderson (2014) champions this idea, iterating that taxes on fats, oils, sugar, and sweeteners would help shift food processing and cultivation from high-fat and high-sugar foods to those with more micronutrients (79). Resulting reductions in the supply of dangerous foods would force producers to distribute nutrient rich products, both limiting the supply of unhealthy foods and raising the supply of healthy products. Similarly, changes in domestic demand for food products would influence the production of specific foods. Most notably, reducing public demand for fast food by regulating its promotion and encouraging healthy eating habits would demand that producers shift the types of food produced to meet consumer markets. The ascent of fast food as a portion of the consumer diet started in the 1970s and has increased in recent decades (Nielsen, Siega-Riz, and Popkin 2002, 111), making it one of the most promising areas to address dietary and health problems. If the United States desires to shift the quality of diets and agricultural production systems to support public health and prosperity, it would be wise to apply regulations to specific products and involve itself with the dissemination of information supportive of health and against disease-inducing foods.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>At the crossroads between consumer diets, public health, environmental sustainability, economic growth, and international trade, the United States\u2019 food system is an entity capable of supporting domestic and international health, development, and prosperity. However, the contemporary food infrastructure juxtaposes its potential, and the negative externalities of this fact are seen through declining public health, degrading environments, and lowered productivity. Food is essential for the survival and optimal functioning of humanity, affecting the quality of lived experiences, ability to support desired lifestyles, and the experience of physical and mental benefits. Yet the supply of food in America is not only inadequate but detrimental toward achieving these benchmarks, which are fundamental human rights. Therefore, the system responsible for the production and distribution of food must meet these grave implications. Nutrition scientists have long been pertinent to the threat food has become to modern health, but it is time for policymakers, economists, and citizens to become aware of and responsive to the necessity to improve the current food system. Pushing the government to modify policy is a viable start, but change can be realized fastest if individuals selectively consume nutritional foods, thereby sending a demanding message for change in systemic production and distribution.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Abrams, Richard K., and Edward C. Harshbarger. 1979. \u201cU.S. Agricultural Trade in the 1970s: Progress and Problems.\u201d <em>Economic Review (Kansas City) <\/em>64 (5). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.kansascityfed.org\/Economic%20Review\/documents\/1330\/1979-U.S.%20Agricultural%20Trade%20in%20the%201970s:%20Progress%20and%20Problems.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.kansascityfed.org\/Economic%20Review\/documents\/1330\/1979-U.S.%20Agricultural%20Trade%20in%20the%201970s:%20Progress%20and%20Problems.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bellemare, Marc F., and Nicholas Carnes. 2015. \u201cWhy Do Members of Congress Support Agricultural Protection?\u201d <em>Food Policy<\/em> 50 (January): 20\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.foodpol.2014.10.010\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.foodpol.2014.10.010<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Beyranevand, Laurie J., and Emily M. Broad Leib. 2017. \u201cMaking the Case for a National Food Strategy in the United States Law and Food Systems: Institutional Pathways toward a New Paradigm.\u201d <em>Food and Drug Law Journal<\/em> 72 (2): 225\u201361. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26661135\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/26661135<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brown, Lester R. 1973. \u201cThe Next Crisis? Food.\u201d <em>Foreign Policy<\/em> 1973-1974 (13): 3\u201333. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1147765\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1147765<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Center for Good Food Purchasing. 2023. <em>Greater Good: The Economic Case for More Local, Resilient, and Equitable Food Systems<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/goodfoodpurchasing.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Greater-Good-Jobs-Study-Report_FINAL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/goodfoodpurchasing.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Greater-Good-Jobs-Study-Report_FINAL.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hawkes, Corinna. 2007. \u201cPromoting Healthy Diets and Tackling Obesity and Diet-Related Chronic Diseases: What Are the Agricultural Policy Levers?\u201d <em>Sage Publications<\/em> 28 (2): 312-322. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15648265070282S210\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15648265070282S210<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mayer, Jean. 1972. \u201cToward a National Nutrition Policy.\u201d <em>Science<\/em> 176 (4032): 237\u201341. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.176.4032.237\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.176.4032.237<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nielsen, Samara J., Anna Maria Siega-Riz, and Barry M. Popkin. 2002. \u201cTrends in Food Locations and Sources among Adolescents and Young Adults.\u201d <em>Preventive Medicine<\/em> 35 (2): 107\u201313. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/pmed.2002.1037\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/pmed.2002.1037<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paarlberg, Don. 1982. \u201cThe Scarcity Syndrome.\u201d <em>American Journal of Agricultural Economics<\/em> 64 (1): 110\u201314. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1241179\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1241179<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pinstrup-Andersen, Per. 2014. \u201cMaking Food Systems Nutrition-Sensitive: An Economic Policy Perspective.\u201d <em>World Food Policy<\/em> 1 (1): 72\u201393.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\nhttps:\/\/doi.org\/10.18278\/wfp.1.1.5.\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Popp, J\u00f3zsef, K\u00e1roly Pet\u0151, and J\u00e1nos Nagy. 2013. \u201cPesticide Productivity and Food Security. A Review.\u201d <em>Agronomy for Sustainable Development<\/em> 33 (1): 243\u201355. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13593-012-0105-x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13593-012-0105-x<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Singh, Atamjit, Nikhita Ghai, and Preet Mohinder Singh Bedi. 2022. \u201cEvolving Concepts in Insulin Resistance.\u201d In <em>Evolving Concepts in Insulin Resistance<\/em>, edited by Marco Infante. London: IntechOpen.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Stewart, James. 2013. \u201cRicher Farmers, Bigger Subsidies.\u201d <em>New York Times <\/em>September 26. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/07\/20\/business\/richer-farmers-bigger-subsidies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/07\/20\/business\/richer-farmers-bigger-subsidies.html<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>United States Department of Agriculture.<em> <\/em>2019. <em>Crop Production Historical Track Records<\/em>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nass.usda.gov\/Publications\/Todays_Reports\/reports\/croptr19.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.nass.usda.gov\/Publications\/Todays_Reports\/reports\/croptr19.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>United States Department of Agriculture. 2025. \u201cLocal and Regional Food Systems.\u201d Last Modified March 7. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nifa.usda.gov\/topics\/local-regional-food-systems\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.nifa.usda.gov\/topics\/local-regional-food-systems<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Washington Post<\/em>. 2023.<em> <\/em>\u201cWant Fiscal Responsibility? Stop Paying Wealthy Farmers.\u201d May 4, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/opinions\/2023\/05\/05\/congress-farm-bill-subsidies-debt\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/opinions\/2023\/05\/05\/congress-farm-bill-subsidies-debt\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Woteki, Catherine E., Brandon L. Kramer, Samantha Cohen, et al. 2020. \u201cImpacts and Echoes: The Lasting Influence of the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health.\u201d <em>Annual Review of Nutrition<\/em> 40 (1): 437\u201361. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-nutr-121619-045319\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-nutr-121619-045319<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Ryder Wentzel, American University&nbsp; Cite as: Wentzel, Ryder. 2025. \u201cWhy Apples Are More Expensive Than Twinkies: A Historical Analysis of America\u2019s Deficient Food System and Recommendations for a Path Forward\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908092.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/why-apples-are-more-expensive-than-twinkies-a-historical-analysis-of-americas-deficient-food-system-and-recommendations-for-a-path-forward\/&nbsp; Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Abstract&nbsp; The [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-445","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/445","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=445"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/445\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=445"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":444,"date":"2025-05-05T20:33:00","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:33:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=444"},"modified":"2025-05-09T22:00:24","modified_gmt":"2025-05-09T22:00:24","slug":"understanding-food-access-at-nourished-cities-green-ridge-farmers-market","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/understanding-food-access-at-nourished-cities-green-ridge-farmers-market\/","title":{"rendered":"Understanding Food Access at Nourished Cities Green Ridge Farmer\u2019s Market"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Peyton McGowan, American University<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: McGowan, Peyton. 2025. \u201cUnderstanding Food Access at Nourished Cities Green Ridge Farmer\u2019s Market\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28968269.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/understanding-food-access-at-nourished-cities-green-ridge-farmers-market\/<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Understanding-Food-Access-at-Nourished-Cities-Green-Ridge-Farmers-Market.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Introduction&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The data described and analyzed in this paper answers the question of what social, economic and sustainable impacts farmer\u2019s markets have on urban spaces. Additionally, this research seeks to focus on access to these impacts in terms of who is able to benefit from these potential positive impacts, why some may be excluded and how this issue can be improved to improve accessibility to benefits. The issue of exclusion arises primarily from the fact that the average visitor of a farmer\u2019s market (FM) is a middle-aged white woman (Bubinas 2011; Robinson and Farmer 2017, 29). Moreover, existing research argues that FMs do not necessarily offer an effective alternative food network for low-income communities of color (Lambert-Pennington and Hicks 2016). However, as FMs have the potential to increase access to food and encourage sustainable practices, access becomes a central question of my research due to the fact that communities living in food apartheid or areas negatively impacted by environmental injustice are often low-income communities of color. Thus, how can FMs become more accessible to communities in need of solutions to the ease of food access? Sage, et al. find that FMs\u2019 \u201cability to address food security for those most in need of improved access is yet to be seen,\u201d but my research seeks to contribute to solving this problem (2013, 1273).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Located directly outside of a community museum in Southeast Washington, D.C. every Saturday from 10 a.m.\u20142 p.m. is the Nourished Cities Green Ridge FM (pseudonym to protect businesses and livelihoods). Running seasonally from April 20 to November 23, the FM recently closed for its second year in business. On the last day of the season, many of the vendors and staff sat with one another and reminisced about their favorite memories. For the past two years, Nourished Cities Green Ridge FM has become a place some Anacostia community members frequent every week to buy fresh produce. As the market closes, it continues to leave a positive impact on the community. The Green Ridge FM positively impacts the urban space of Anacostia by serving as a site of social gathering and community care, increasing access to food at reasonable prices and connecting community members to sustainable practices.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Background<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Upon arriving at the Green Ridge FM for the first time, I was surprised by the small size of the market. With Pleasant Plains Farms (pseudonym) as the sole produce vendor, its long tables covered with red and white checkered cloths, reminiscent of picnic tables, dominate the space. Directly across from the several tables stacked with wooden crates full of fresh produce sits the FRESHFARM informational table with two to three staff members who work for the nonprofit that manages the market. Some days, these are the only tables at the market. Other days, they are accompanied by rotating tables offering other services from emergency contraception to legal aid.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>After completing five hours of participant observation at the Green Ridge FM across three weeks from November 9 to November 23, I became very familiar with this space, the vendors and the staff. Additionally, I completed an hour of semi-structured interviews that added context and depth to this participant observation. I chose the Green Ridge FM as one of two FMs I will be studying in a comparative analysis due to its location in Ward 8, which has the highest poverty rate in D.C (District of Columbia 2020). Additionally, the area has been classified as a food desert by <em>The Washington Post<\/em> (Sanchez 2022). Food deserts are defined as \u201ca low-income census tract where a substantial number or share of residents have low access to a supermarket or a large grocery store\u201d (Reese 2019, 5-6). However, following Black feminist anthropologist Ashant\u00e9 Reese, I instead use the term food apartheid to refer to these areas as this terminology \u201cnames the structural conditions that affirm and normalize such practices\u201d of major grocery store chains disinvesting in low-income Black communities and therefore, decreasing their access to food (2019, 7). As this research seeks to understand how to improve these communities\u2019 access to food and other potential benefits of FMs, using the term food apartheid and recognizing the structural inequalities that have resulted in this issue become central to my theoretical approach.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Further, the second FM I have decided to study is the Palisade\u2019s Sunny Orchards FM (pseudonym) located in Ward 3, which has the lowest poverty level (District of Colombia 2020). Through a comparative analysis between the two FMs, I can understand how socioeconomic status and other variables affect access to the impacts of FMs. Thus far, I have observed and gathered that through a variety of practices and ways of occupying space, Green Ridge FM emerges as a place that brings community together and puts community first. By understanding the ways in which Green Ridge FM is able to occupy urban space positively and serve its community with empathy, Green Ridge FM may serve as a model to pave more accessible alternative food networks. Considering the low socioeconomic status and food apartheid state of Ward 8, understanding the mechanisms the Green Ridge FM employs to increase access allows for a replication of these practices at other FMs to broaden their access beyond typical white female shoppers to include low-income communities of color that would be best served by their potential impacts. As my research thus far has been limited to examining the Green Ridge FM, the following research discusses the social, economic and environmental impacts of this market and how it increases access without yet delving into the comparative analysis with the Sunny Orchards FM.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Social Impacts<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>One chilly Saturday morning, I sat inside of the community museum across from one of the produce vendors, Monty, who I was conducting a semi-structured interview with. At some point in the interview, I described community care as an act in which community members help one another through some form of giving or exchange. When I finished, Monty replied:&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cYeah, community care. There has been a few instances throughout the year where you know someone comes in, and they&#8217;re shopping, and another individual comes in after, and they&#8217;ll pick up, they&#8217;ll pay because they&#8217;re using Produce Plus, you know, pay for the portion of that other customer\u2019s purchase. I also had a group of fairly consistent ladies that would also come in and they&#8217;re all friends, the three of them, and they pay for each other consistently just so they can use Produce Plus and things like that.\u201d&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Produce Plus is a nutrition program run by the DC Department of Health that is accepted by FRESHFARM and provides all participants with $40 each month to purchase fresh produce (FRESHFARM, n.d.). In this way, produce is made more financially accessible to community members as they can purchase a quantity of fresh produce for virtually no cost at all. Additionally, as community members take it upon themselves to ensure that all their allotted Produce Plus money is spent within a month, they begin to spread these benefits throughout the community by paying it forward to other shoppers. These interactions demonstrate concrete and repeated practices of paying for others when possible as a result of Nourished Cities accepting Produce Plus. Through this process, community care is exemplified at the Green Ridge FM as community members take it upon themselves to pay for others\u2019 groceries when they are in position to do so.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Moreover, these interactions of community care extend beyond shoppers as vendors and staff members often give out food and produce to community members at no cost. On one Saturday afternoon just after the market had closed for the day, I watched as Eduardo, another produce vendor from Parkview Farms, carried several crates of apples into the museum itself. These apples were given to people participating in the Harvest Festival taking place inside at no cost. On other days, Veronica and Ameera, FRESHFARM staff members, handed out homemade pumpkin cheesecake and baked butternut squash. When this food was handed out, shoppers often stayed and chatted with the staff members. Through these various instances in which food is made more accessible by being offered at no cost, food also serves as an element that encourages socialization and community care.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;By offering free produce or prepared food, even if in small quantities, community members care for their own and open conversations with new or familiar faces through this act of giving. Moreover, as described in theories of space and place, \u201csocial practices and interactions shape places\u201d (Casey 1996, 24). Thus, through these interactions of community care and socialization that simultaneously occur in a place that exists directly outside of a museum, a well-known community site, place at the Green Ridge FM is shaped into a site of community gathering that creates a sense of community. This sense of community is further underscored by the fact that communal activities create a sense of place (Casey 1996, 31). In this context, shopping for produce in a social space can be understood as a communal activity that creates not only a sense of place, but a sense of community.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In sum, through observing, participating in and speaking with people at the Green Ridge FM, I have seen the ways in which community members take it upon themselves to care for others by making sure no nutrition program benefits are wasted and by passing out food at no cost, exemplifying community care. Additionally, this act of giving serves as a point of socialization. Together, the social impacts of the FM positively impact the community, even if they are found in small acts of kindness. The repetition and frequency of these interactions demonstrates a sense of community that has been built in part due to these processes.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Economic Impacts<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>On my second Saturday at the market, I met Veronica for the first time. After chatting for a while, we discussed the purpose of my research, and I expressed to her that I wanted to know more about the nutrition programs accepted by Nourished Cities. She soon pulled out a clear plastic box filled with a number of different colored paper slips in the shape of dollar bills. Each slip was worth $1 and corresponded with a nutritional program. While the box did not include Produce Plus, it did include the Senior Farmer\u2019s Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP), Women, Infants &amp; Children Farmer\u2019s Market Nutrition Program (WIC FMNP) and the Supplemental Nutritional Program (SNAP), which are all Federal Nutrition Programs. Veronica told me that Green Ridge FM accepts these Federal Nutrition Programs, and I felt surprised at how many they accepted. She continued to explain to me that these slips were used to \u201cmatch\u201d dollar-for-dollar up to $10 of what each customer spent. For example, one customer could spend $15 on produce at the market using SFMNP and receive ten $1 coupon slips in return to use on their next visit. Thus, produce is made more financially accessible through the acceptance of Federal Nutrition Program benefits. Nourished Cities enhance these benefits as they match up to $10 of each purchase. In this way, returning to the market to both buy local produce for oneself and support local farmers is incentivized by Nourished Cities.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To further connect this to the work of Ashant\u00e9 Reese, she uses the term \u201cgeographies of self-reliance&#8221; to refer to how Black communities physically navigate the food landscape and what phenomenological concerns relate to this, such as personal and community priorities and racialized responsibility (2019, 8). Thus, by understanding the Green Ridge FM as a part of a geographies of self-reliance, it can be understood as a place of Black community in which the utilization of the acceptance and matching of Federal Nutrition Programs by the Nourished Cities FM becomes a way of navigating the Anacostia food landscape. As Nourished Cities&#8217; acceptance and incentivization of Federal Nutrition Programs can be understood as form of community prioritization of the affordability of food, the utilization of these benefits emerges to increase access to food while simultaneously acting as a way of navigating the food landscape that has been disinvested in by dominant food networks.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Moreover, on my first Saturday at the market, I had written down the prices of each item being sold by Pleasant Plains Farms. Some items, such as pears, were listed for as little as $1 a pound, while other items like squash were listed for $4 each. However, $4 was the highest price per item or pound and Monty said the most ever charged per pound or item is $7. While I scribbled down the prices in my field notebook, I asked him how he decided on how to price items. He mentioned understanding that the community was low-income and that he was the only produce vendor in the market, meaning he was not worried about competition. However, he also noted that he took into account when customers complained about prices being too high and would often lower them accordingly. Blue Jay, a Nourished Cities staff member who chose his pseudonym based of his clothing and the native bird species he liked, also described himself as an advocate in this way during my semi-structured interview with him.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Through the combination of prices being listed at a low starting point due to the understanding Pleasant Plains Farms has for the community as well as their willingness to work with the community when pricing, produce is made more financially accessible for shoppers at the Green Ridge FM. They are even marked lower than the closest grocery store, the Safeway on Alabama Avenue, according to two older African American women I had briefly interviewed at one point in time. In this way, shoppers navigate the inequity of the food landscape as another aspect of a geographies of self-reliance as they advocate for themselves and their community to make food more financially accessible at the Green Ridge FM. These practices exemplify how \u201cBlack food geographies are influenced by the unequal spatial distribution of grocery stores but are not unilaterally defined by them,\u201d as community members use the Green Ridge FM and its benefits as an alternative food network disconnected from grocery store chains to increase access to food despite structural inequalities (Reese 2019, 12).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In sum, the positive economic impact of the Green Ridge FM is spread to the community in a number of ways. First, by accepting Federal Nutrition Program benefits, people who may not otherwise be able to shop at the market are welcomed. Second, this benefit is further incentivized by Nourished Cities through the market match program. Additionally, the farmers\u2019 and staffs\u2019 willingness to take into account and advocate for members of the community concerned with prices demonstrates a prioritization of serving and caring for the community over profit.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Sustainable Impacts<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>On another Saturday at the market, there were no shoppers when I arrived. I greeted Monty and asked him if it had been a slow day. He told me that the morning when they first opened was busy since Produce Plus had come that week. While disappointed that I had not gotten there early to speak with some of these shoppers, Monty told me that a lot of people had also gone inside the museum for a Harvest Festival, so I headed inside to check it out. As the community museum is under the Smithsonian, the festival was hosted by the research institute. The Harvest Festival was a community event in which organizers passed out free produce that had been harvested from the community garden behind the museum. Additionally, Smithsonian brought in a speaker on urban gardening who spoke with the community and handed out vegetables for people to sample, as well as okra seed packets with guides on how to grow the plant. The crowd, consisting of about twenty mostly middle-aged Black women, all filed in a line afterwards to get their samples and seeds, conversing with each other as they waited.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While the Harvest Festival only happens a few times a year depending on the seasons of the produce, the museum also hosts other community engaged events. After I had headed back out to the market, I heard Monty telling some other shoppers to go inside and check it out. Thus, by the vendors of Nourished Cities working with the museum and being located outside of it, they can encourage shoppers to participate in educational events on sustainability and, more specifically, urban farming. Therefore, sustainability is encouraged throughout the community. Beyond lowering food miles with Pleasant Plains Farms being located a 35-minute drive away and supplying shoppers with compostable packaging for produce, the Green Ridge FM goes past the typical sustainable practices encouraged at FMs by working with the community museum to further encourage sustainability with special attention to urban space and urban residents. These ways of working with outside organizations exemplified by the museum and Nourished Cities vendors serve as an example to other urban FMs to expand the ways in which they encourage sustainability in the face of the current global climate emergency state.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In conclusion, the positive social, economic and sustainable impacts of the Green Ridge FM encourage forms of community care, make produce more financially accessible and promote sustainable practices within the community. By paying for others when shoppers have leftover Produce Plus, the market is a center of community care. Additionally, handing out food to shoppers at no cost acts as a point of socialization. Together, these interactions and the location of the FM outside of the museum have shaped the FM into a place of community gathering in which its positive social impacts can be felt by the community. Second, by utilizing practices of accepting and incentivizing the use of Federal Nutrition Program benefits, Green Ridge FM shoppers navigate their food landscape through geographies of self-reliance that allow them to find ways in which food can be more accessible to them in conditions of food apartheid through alternative food networks. Lastly, sustainability is encouraged through community partnerships and community engaged events. In sum, the Green Ridge FM makes these positive social, economic and sustainable impacts that are offered by the market more accessible to low-income communities of color by continuously working with them to set prices and therefore incentivize shoppers. In doing so, the Green Ridge FM recognizes the conditions of food apartheid that have initiated these issues of access. By understanding the mechanisms the Green Ridge FM employs to make its impacts more accessible, these practices can serve as models to other FMs around the country to broaden their scope of shoppers beyond the average white female shopper to bring the benefits of FMs to low-income communities of color.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reese, Ashant\u00e9 M. 2019. <em>Black Food Geographies: Race, Self-Reliance, and Food Access in Washington, D.C.<\/em> University of North Carolina Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.5149\/9781469651521_reese\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.5149\/9781469651521_reese<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Health Resources and Services Administration. 2020. \u201cDistrict of Columbia &#8211; 2020 &#8211; III.B. Overview of the State.\u201d Accessed February 25, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/mchb.tvisdata.hrsa.gov\/Narratives\/Overview\/258318d0-8dbe-46fd-9a77-385b6753e1c7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/mchb.tvisdata.hrsa.gov\/Narratives\/Overview\/258318d0-8dbe-46fd-9a77-385b6753e1c7<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Casey, Edward S. 1996. \u201cHow to Get from Space to Place in a Fairly Short Stretch of Time: Phenomenological Prolegomena.\u201d In <em>Senses of Place<\/em>, 1996, edited by Steven Feld and Keith H Basso. Santa Fe, N.M.; [Seattle]: School of American Research Press; Distributed by the University of Washington Press.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>McCracken, Vicki A., Jeremy L. Sage, and Rayna A. Sage. 2013. \u201cBridging the Gap: Do Farmers\u2019 Markets Help Alleviate Impacts of Food Deserts?\u201d <em>American Journal of Agricultural Economics<\/em> 95 (5): 1273\u201379, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/24476910\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/24476910<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hicks, Kathryn and Katherine Lambert-Pennington. 2016. \u201cClass Conscious, Color-Blind: Examining the Dynamics of Food Access and the Justice Potential of Farmers Markets.\u201d <em>Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment<\/em> 38 (1): 57\u201366. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cuag.12066\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cuag.12066<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bubinas, Kathleen. \u201cFarmers Markets in the Post-Industrial City.\u201d <em>City &amp; Society<\/em> 23 (2): 154\u201372. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1548-744X.2011.01060.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1548-744X.2011.01060.x<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gilliland, Jason and Kristian Larsen. 2009. \u201cA Farmers\u2019 Market in a Food Desert: Evaluating Impacts on the Price and Availability of Healthy Food.\u201d <em>Health &amp; Place<\/em> 15 (4) : 1158\u201362. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.healthplace.2009.06.007\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.healthplace.2009.06.007<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>FRESHFARM. n.d. \u201cProduce Plus.\u201d Accessed March 7, 2025, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.freshfarm.org\/produceplus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.freshfarm.org\/produceplus<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>S\u00e1nchez, Vanessa G. 2022.&nbsp; \u201cBlack-Owned Stores Work to End D.C.\u2019s Food Deserts.\u201d <em>Washington Post<\/em>, July 7, 2022, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/dc-md-va\/2022\/07\/07\/dc-food-deserts-anacostia\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/dc-md-va\/2022\/07\/07\/dc-food-deserts-anacostia\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Peyton McGowan, American University Cite as: McGowan, Peyton. 2025. \u201cUnderstanding Food Access at Nourished Cities Green Ridge Farmer\u2019s Market\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28968269. Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/understanding-food-access-at-nourished-cities-green-ridge-farmers-market\/ Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Introduction&nbsp;&nbsp; The data described and analyzed in this paper answers the question of [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-444","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/444","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=444"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/444\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=444"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":443,"date":"2025-05-05T20:32:32","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:32:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=443"},"modified":"2025-05-09T22:01:56","modified_gmt":"2025-05-09T22:01:56","slug":"the-science-of-pickling","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/the-science-of-pickling\/","title":{"rendered":"The Science of Pickling"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Ines Arroyo, Natalia Cabrera, Anette Honey Hochstadt, Aaron Kowalski; American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Arroyo, Ines, Natalia Cabrera, Anette Hochstadt, and Aaron Kowalski. 2025. \u201cThe Science of Pickling\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00021. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28909133\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28909133<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-science-of-pickling\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-science-of-pickling\/<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/The-Science-of-Pickling.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Before the modern era of solid chemicals and preservatives, various processes were used throughout history to accomplish longer-lived foods. Examples include salting or dehydrating meats, combining fruits and sugar to make jams, and making dairy into cheese. For vegetables, the process of using salts, sugars, and vinegar for preservation is called \u201cpickling.\u201d The most enigmatic example of pickling we see are pickled cucumbers, which, in the English-speaking world, are colloquially called \u201cpickles.\u201d&nbsp; In creating a dish that would showcase the scientific concepts of food, the following research focuses on the process of making our own pickles.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The history of pickles is nearly as long as civilization itself. According to PBS columnist and food historian Tori Avery, the term originated from either the Dutch word \u201cpekel\u201d or the German \u201cp\u00f3kel.\u201d Despite the Germanic roots of the word, pickles are far older than the Dutch or German languages. It is speculated that the first pickles can be traced all the way back to approximately 2030 BC (Avey 2014). Eventually, Kosher dill pickles became a staple among Jewish communities living in Eastern Europe, which formerly had a very bland diet due to the harsh climate and lack of agricultural variety. In addition, sailors and other military groupings adopted pickles as a staple food due to their shelf-stable quality and ability to be shipped across great distances.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While cucumbers remain the most popular pickled vegetables, countless other fruits and vegetables are widely consumed across many distinct cultures. Pickled onions, cauliflower, cabbage, and even pickled meats and cheeses can be found in the cuisine of countless people. In addition to these varieties of foods that have been pickled, there are also great varieties in the methods by which pickles can be created. Kosher dill pickles are the result of a method known as \u201clacto-fermentation\u201d (Avey 2014). Lacto-fermentation is also the process used to create the German \u201csauerkraut,\u201d a fermented cabbage that is eaten both on its own and used as a condiment.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>We chose to create several batches of pickles, which all used varying types of vinegar for the acidic component. For the basic recipe, we took inspiration and guidance from Jeanine Donofrio\u2019s \u201cDill Pickles Recipe,\u201d first posted to the cooking website \u201cLove and Lemons\u201d in 2018 (Donofrio). Our recipe starts by cutting cucumbers lengthwise into quarters to make pickle spears. Both spears and chips are common cuts for pickling cucumbers, as the exposed inside of the vegetable helps the pickling solution penetrate the cucumbers. Next, divide the cucumbers into four 8-ounce glass jars or, alternatively, two 16-ounce glass jars. These various batch sizes have little bearing on the final product but are instead a matter of equipment and personal preference.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>After jarring, the recipe calls for the creation of a pickling solution, which will transform our cucumbers into pickles. The pickle recipe consists of between twelve and fourteen Persian cucumbers, four garlic cloves, two teaspoons of mustard seeds, two teaspoons of peppercorns, a few fresh dill sprigs per jar, two cups of water, two cups of the desired vinegar, a quarter cup of cane sugar, and two tablespoons of sea salt (Donofrio 2018). Donofrio calls for heating water, vinegar, sugar, and salt in a medium saucepan over medium heat until the sugar and salt dissolve (2018). We completed the recipe with four different kinds of vinegar to see the difference in results. Our four batches of pickles were finished in white vinegar, apple cider vinegar, red wine vinegar, and balsamic vinegar. Each of the four jars was separated to contain only one kind of vinegar. The pickles must sit in the solution for at least two days before consumption, but the recipe&#8217;s author recommends five or six days for maximum flavor development. Then, they can be stored in the fridge for several weeks.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While flavor preference is subjective, we took several detailed notes on the results of each kind of pickle. The \u201cwhite vinegar pickle\u201d was everything expected of a traditional dill pickle. It took on the flavors present in the pickling solution to create a very average, yet still delicious, dill pickle. Our second pickle, the \u201cbalsamic pickle,\u201d sat in a similar pickling solution, but the white vinegar was replaced with balsamic vinegar. The color of the pickles took on a blackened color and did not effectively pickle. Instead of pickling, they took on a slightly sweet taste due to the flavors present in the balsamic. While not a true pickle, the cucumbers did not become inedible or acrid. For our third pickle, we chose to do a \u201cred wine pickle\u201d which used red wine vinegar. These pickles were similar to the white vinegar pickles in both taste and texture.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>They did differ, however, in that they took on a slightly sweeter taste and a reddish hue from the red wine vinegar. Finally, we experimented with our last pickle by using apple cider vinegar to create our \u201capple cider pickle.\u201d This pickle was quite distinct from the others, with it having taken on a yellow hue from the vinegar as well as an extreme and unpleasant sour taste. The acrid flavor and dissimilarity to the other pickles made the apple cider pickle somewhat of a failure compared to our other batches.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Considering our understanding of the history behind pickling, its importance in such a vast number of cultures, and the results of our culinary experiment, it is crucial to analyze the science behind pickling. First, it is critical to understand how the pickling process transforms the raw ingredients into something new and shelf-stable (Bonem 2017). According to food scientists, the process of lacto-fermentation, which is the process used in making dill pickles, relies on using acids, salts, and naturally occurring lactic acid to start the fermentation process (Sawada et al. 2021). The pickling process results in the development of many beneficial microbes that were not present in the base ingredients. In addition, the pH of the pickling solution begins with a moderate level of acidity. This is due to the presence of vinegar, among several other ingredients. However, this is not the case throughout the entire pickling process. Lactic acid produced during the fermentation process raises the acidity and contributes to the safe preservation of pickled vegetables. The acidity of the pickles reduces the presence of microorganisms that would cause quicker rot and decay (Sawada et al. 2021)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>On the topic of texture, the high salt content of the pickling liquid helps to keep the vegetables crunchy. This is something seen as desirable in pickles, and the presence of specific kinds of salt can change the results of the pickle texture (Bonem 2017). The salt content in the pickling liquid also draws out moisture from the pickles initially, which contributes to the softened flesh of the vegetable and allows the brine&#8217;s flavor to penetrate the pickles (Sawada et al. 2021). According to many food scholars, the unique properties of cruciferous vegetables, such as cucumbers, lend very well to pickling. The behavior of glucosinolates takes on a unique flavor and creates new compounds when they are damaged during the pickling process (Suzuki et al. 2006). In addition, leading experts on pickling in the culinary field have recommendations as to which kind of vinegar is best for the pickling process. Despite our personal results, the experts often recommend either white distilled vinegar or apple cider vinegar (Great Lakes Pickling Company). Most negative microbes that could turn the would-be pickled vegetables rotten and acrid will die at a pH of 4.6 or lower, so experts recommend a solution that errs on the side of caution with a pH of 4.5 or even a bit lower (Ward).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pickles have long been a staple of human diets since the earliest glimpse of civilization. This is for a good reason, as pickling has been a critical way to produce shelf-stable food with an exciting flavor among bland diets. Further, the pickling process can neutralize harmful microbes, which may turn food acrid and rotten. The pickling of vegetables can create unique and long-lived foods. However, the pickling of cruciferous vegetables like cucumbers remains the most common target of pickling. The impressive science and history of pickling solidify it as a staple of the human diet that is likely to be around for a long time.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Avey, Tori. 2014. \u201cHistory in a Jar: The Story of Pickles.\u201d PBS. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pbs.org\/food\/stories\/history-pickles\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.pbs.org\/food\/stories\/history-pickles<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bonem, Max. 2017. \u201cThe Science of Vinegar Pickling, Explained.\u201d Food &amp; Wine, May 24, 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.foodandwine.com\/vegetables\/pickled-vegetables\/science-vinegar-pickles-explained\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.foodandwine.com\/vegetables\/pickled-vegetables\/science-vinegar-pickles-explained<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Donofrio, Jeanine. 2018. \u201cDill Pickles Recipe.\u201d Love and Lemons. Accessed 12 November 2024.<a href=\"http:\/\/www.loveandlemons.com\/dill-pickles-recipe\/#wprm-recipe-container-49440\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.loveandlemons.com\/dill-pickles-recipe\/#wprm-recipe-container-49440.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Great Lakes Pickling Company. n.d. \u201cWhat Vinegar to Use In Pickling?\u201d Great Lakes Pickling Company, Accessed November 12, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/greatlakespickling.com\/what-vinegar-to-use-in-pickling\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/greatlakespickling.com\/what-vinegar-to-use-in-pickling\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sawada, Kazunori, Hitsho Koyano, Nozomi Yamamoto, and Takuji Yamada.&nbsp; 2021 \u201cThe Effects of Vegetable Pickling Conditions on the Dynamics of Microbiota and Metabolites.\u201d <em>PeerJ <\/em>9. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.11123\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.11123<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Suzuki, Chise, Mayumi Ohnishi-Kameyama, Keisuke Sakaki, Takashi Murata, and Mitsuru Yoshida.&nbsp; 2006. \u201cBehavior of Glucosinolates in Pickling Cruciferous Vegetables.\u201d <em>Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry <\/em>54 (25): 9430-36.&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/jf061789l\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/jf061789l<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ward, Christina. 2019. \u201cPickle Science: How to Master the Preserving Power of Acids.\u201d <em>Serious Eats<\/em>, November 1, 2019. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.seriouseats.com\/preserving-pickle-cucumber-science-acidity\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.seriouseats.com\/preserving-pickle-cucumber-science-acidity.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Ines Arroyo, Natalia Cabrera, Anette Honey Hochstadt, Aaron Kowalski; American University&nbsp; Cite as: Arroyo, Ines, Natalia Cabrera, Anette Hochstadt, and Aaron Kowalski. 2025. \u201cThe Science of Pickling\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28909133.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-science-of-pickling\/&nbsp; Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Before the modern era of [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-443","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/443","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=443"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/443\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=443"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":442,"date":"2025-05-05T20:31:32","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:31:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=442"},"modified":"2025-05-09T22:03:43","modified_gmt":"2025-05-09T22:03:43","slug":"the-role-of-indigenous-ecological-knowledge-in-climate-resilient-food-systems","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/the-role-of-indigenous-ecological-knowledge-in-climate-resilient-food-systems\/","title":{"rendered":"The Role of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Climate-Resilient Food Systems"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Sade Goodridge, American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Goodridge, Sade. 2025. \u201cThe Role of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Climate-resilient Food Systems\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00020. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28968389\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28968389<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-role-of-indigenous-ecological-knowledge-in-climate-resilient-food-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-role-of-indigenous-ecological-knowledge-in-climate-resilient-food-systems\/<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/The-Role-of-Indigenous-Ecological-Knowledge-in-Climate-Resilient-Food-Systems.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Quietly but steadily, the world is running out of farmland. Unless substantial changes are made, this depletion will create severe food shortages over the next 50 years (Farm Journal 2020). Addressing this issue requires building robust, sustainable food systems to ensure a stable food supply despite a growing global population. Central to this transformation is the recognition of Indigenous food systems grounded in traditional ecological knowledge. Unlike dominant, industrialized food systems, Indigenous food systems are holistic and rooted in principles of biodiversity, promoting sustainable land stewardship and ensuring food sovereignty. Thus, this paper argues that to address the dwindling efficacy of current food systems, there must be a paradigm shift toward food systems grounded in Indigenous ecological knowledge.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Biodiversity and Agroecology<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A fundamental aspect of Indigenous food systems is their promotion of biodiversity, which enhances climate resilience. Unlike monocultures, which are vulnerable to pests, disease, and extreme weather events, Indigenous communities utilize agroecological methods, such as intercropping and polyculture. The <em>milpa<\/em> system, used in parts of Latin America, exemplifies this approach (Hernandez 2022, 59). In a milpa, crops like corn, beans, and squash are grown symbiotically, creating a mutually beneficial system. Corn provides structural support for beans to climb, beans restore nitrogen to the soil, and squash acts as ground cover to reduce weeds and moisture loss. Such systems reduce the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which are harmful to the environment (Hernandez 2022, 139). This demonstrates that biodiversity, as opposed to monoculture, is not only a sustainable approach but also a critical strategy for bolstering food systems.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another notable example of biodiversity in Indigenous food systems is the fish-rice systems practiced in South and Southeast Asia. These systems integrate fish farming with rice cultivation, creating a reciprocal relationship in which fish control pests while rice plants provide food and shelter for aquatic life (Hodgkin 2015). Both the milpa and fish-rice systems embody the principles of polyculture and biodiversity, offering essential climate-adaptive benefits. These examples challenge the rationale for continuing industrial monocultures, which, despite their efficiency in the short term, are ultimately fragile and harmful in the long term.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Land Stewardship and Sustainable Practices<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Indigenous land stewardship is the connection between Indigenous Peoples, their natural environment, and local communities. Unlike Western environmental conservation, which often views land as a resource to be controlled or &#8220;protected,&#8221; Indigenous stewardship is rooted in holistic, place-based practices that emphasize reciprocity with the natural world. Dr. Elizabeth Hern\u00e1ndez in <em>Fresh Banana Leaves<\/em>, notes that Indigenous peoples sustain 80 percent of the world\u2019s biodiversity despite occupying only 25 percent of global land (2022, 119). This stewardship approach is guided by the principle of taking only what is needed and using methods that enhance, rather than deplete, natural ecosystems (Hernandez 2022, 72-3). Nonetheless, reviewing how Indigenous peoples have stewarded the land will provide invaluable insights into how we can improve our current food systems.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In a podcast interview, Dr. Fodi Beatriz Huarcaya Ayhua, a veterinarian from Peru, discussed how climate change wreaked havoc on the country\u2019s planting season. Instead of planting in the summer, they now plant in March and April and have to use harmful chemicals. Still, Dr. Ayhua and other Peruvians give back to the environment by recovering the areas and enriching them by planting trees in the forest, as they recognize that soil degradation is due to deforestation and the use of harmful chemicals (Thompson 2024). This anecdote exemplifies the reciprocal and endemic knowledge Indigenous peoples possess. Moreover, despite growing pressures such as colonization and climate change, Indigenous peoples continue to demonstrate perseverance and solutions with tenacity and resilience.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This relationship with the land is also deeply spiritual, shown in the continued practice of customary rituals passed down for generations to pay respect to their deities and ancestors. The narratives of Black and Indigenous communities converge on this issue, as both groups have faced displacement and loss of land rights due to settler colonialism (Agroecology Summit 2023). Thus, bell hooks\u2019 essay, Touching the Earth, discusses the land as a source of restoration and healing (hooks 2020).&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Scholar and activist bell hooks frames land as a site of restoration and healing for Black communities, emphasizing the need for marginalized groups to reclaim control over their connection to the land and how the land is a source of restoration and healing for Black people. She also highlights the deep connection between Black people and Indigenous Americans, explaining how they taught each other to work with the land to grow food. These themes of restoration and education resonate with Leah Penniman\u2019s Black Earth Wisdom, a collection of essays and interviews exploring Black people\u2019s spiritual and scientific relationship with the land, water, and climate (2024). A quote on Penniman\u2019s website from the Queen Mothers of Kroboland, Ghana, admonished their Black American student in disbelief over their lack of spirituality (2024).&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This same outrage and disbelief were passionately exclaimed by Jonny BearCub Stiffarm at the US Agroecology Summit, who questioned why Indigenous peoples should trust researchers when they do not have any spirit (Agroecology Summit 2023). These impassioned declarations emphasize a key pillar of Indigenous land stewardship\u2014recognizing the interrelationships between all living beings on earth and having a reverential attitude toward the environment in taking care of it while dwelling within its premises. It is important to note that spirituality is not synonymous with religiosity. Instead of the inherent hierarchical structure religions comprise, spirituality has been maintained as an individual act (Toledo 2022). Thus, each person can exhibit some form of spirituality in nature through actively engaging in one&#8217;s surroundings or expressing gratitude for the natural world. Each of these acts allows for a greater appreciation of the earth, which results in greater care. As Penniman\u2019s website and hooks&#8217; sentiments state, &#8220;When we love the earth, we are able to love ourselves more fully\u201d (hooks 2020).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Connecting synergistically with the land, as Indigenous and BIPOC stewards do, allows for what Dr. Hernandez emphasizes: Indigenous knowledge is place-based (Hernandez 2022, 119). This means that every Indigenous tribe, pueblo, or community has their own unique ways of thinking and managing their landscapes. Landscapes are looked at holistically and are not viewed or divided into systems, as is typical in Western ideology. This way of thinking results in a more inclusive way of viewing the environment instead of a transactional viewpoint. One can see themself as part of the environment, not apart from it. This type of perspective is crucial for recognizing one\u2019s place within the broader ecosystem and adapting our minds to develop robust food systems in a sustainable and long-lasting manner.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Food Sovereignty and Food Justice<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Food sovereignty, a key principle of Indigenous food systems, offers a climate-justice-centered approach to food production. Echoing in the background of the movement of food sovereignty is reclamation\u2014reclaiming what dominant groups have taken to exploit marginalized ones. One prominent example is the La Via Campesina movement, a global alliance of small farmers advocating for food sovereignty. The movement promotes collective action to protect farmers from corporate monopolization of seeds and agricultural resources (La Via Campesina 2022). This emphasis on unity is echoed in Karen Washington&#8217;s interview (Brones 2018) and Leah Penniman&#8217;s Farming While Black (2018), where the communities they formed provided spaces for collective empowerment. These stories highlight the importance of working together to confront powerful entities like multinational corporations.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Additionally, as Jesus Vazquez from Organizacion Boricua de Agricultura Ecologica de Puerto Rico succinctly explains in the short film <em>Agroecology in Action<\/em>, \u201cAgroecology is food sovereignty\u201d (CAGJ 2022). This means Indigenous communities are building more democratic and equitable food systems. Furthermore, Mr. Vazquez notes that because of the colonial context, almost 80 percent of the food eaten in Puerto Rico is imported, whereas in the past, Indigenous communities domestically produced more than 70 percent (CAGJ 2022). So, combining Indigenous knowledge with modern innovation and the ecosystems\u2019 natural processes honors ancestral wisdom and liberates the farmer from harmful practices championed by large multinational corporations.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>On a similar note, during a field trip to UDC Farms, Chef Marly, a food justice advocate, recounted how people send her heirloom seeds from around the world to preserve climate-resilient crop varieties from large corporations&#8217; attempts to monopolize. Such practices underscore the importance of seed sovereignty, a key element of food sovereignty. Seed sovereignty allows communities to control their own sources of food production, reducing dependence on industrial seed companies that produce genetically modified, non-replicable seeds.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Food justice builds upon the principles of environmental justice. The First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, held in Washington, D.C., in 1991, declared in Environmental Justice Principle 7, \u201cEnvironmental Justice demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level of decision-making, including needs assessment, planning, implementation, enforcement, and evaluation\u201d (Environmental Justice 1991). In an essay, Malini Ranganathan critiques Western environmentalism for ignoring colonial histories and calls for a decolonized vision of environmental justice (2017). These perspectives underscore the urgent need for community-based approaches to food production that honor the contributions of Indigenous and BIPOC communities. Such approaches enable communities to reclaim autonomy over their food systems while promoting climate adaptation and resilience.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Decolonizing Knowledge and Centering Indigenous Voices<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Unfortunately, conventional environmental practices or policies rarely prioritize or consult Indigenous peoples. Despite the effectiveness of these Indigenous agroecological practices, mainstream agricultural systems still prioritize monoculture farming and industrial food production. This is partly due to the systematic exclusion of Indigenous voices in conservation and agricultural policy. Scholar Leanne Betasamosake Simpson highlights this issue in her work on Indigenous pedagogy, contrasting Western education&#8217;s emphasis on conformity with Indigenous modes of self-determined, land-based learning (2014). Indigenous knowledge systems are often dismissed as too radical or unscientific despite the clear evidence of their success.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Still, moving forward requires heeding insights like those from Indigenous scholar Kim TallBear, who emphasizes the need to decentralize conversations by \u201cstanding with\u201d marginalized communities (2014). Unfortunately, many members of dominant groups tend to tokenize BIPOC voices rather than genuinely listen. Such behavior is counterproductive to the core of agroecology, which is fundamentally a social justice issue. Thus, it will take guiding principles like the Agroecology Research-Action Collective, which stresses respecting diverse knowledge and analyses to help provide a path forward (2021).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>One of the most effective ways to center traditional Indigenous voices is to take a community-based approach. Such engagement helps prioritize real-world needs and create more adaptable policies. Authors Orlando Fals-Borda and Muhammad Anisur Rahman offered new perspectives on how community-based research is practiced globally. They outlined techniques such as collective research, critical recovery of history, valuing folk culture, and producing and disseminating new knowledge (1991). These themes resonated with the UNESCO report on transforming higher education institutions for sustainability, which advocated revising institutional practices to create opportunities for engaging diverse communities and employing inclusive approaches that respect cultural diversity (2022). These principles align with Orlando Fals-Borda\u2019s ideas on participatory action research, calling for recognizing how culture and ethnicity play a role in the reciprocal nature of participatory research (Fals-Borda 1991, 6).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The documentary <em>Gather<\/em> underscores the importance of Indigenous ecological knowledge. While the United States is a relatively young nation, Indigenous communities have lived on and cultivated this land for centuries, fostering a profound understanding of its ecosystems. For example, master forager Twila Cassadore, featured in the documentary, demonstrates her expertise in identifying edible plants. She reflects on the tragic loss of traditional knowledge resulting from the genocide of the Apache people (Rawal 2020). This anecdote only highlights the urgency of consulting Indigenous communities and tapping into their extensive ecological wisdom to address current environmental challenges.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Indigenous knowledge systems promote biodiversity, sustainable land stewardship, and food sovereignty\u2014offering a holistic model for climate-resilient food systems. However, policymakers, researchers, and environmental organizations must go beyond symbolic inclusion for these strategies to be effective. Centering Indigenous voices requires decolonizing knowledge systems and recognizing Indigenous perspectives as valid, scientific, and essential to the global climate response. This shift can enable a transition from extractive industrial food models to regenerative, ecologically sustainable systems that build climate resilience for all.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Agroecology Research-Action Collective. 2021. \u201cPrinciples and Protocols for Mutually Beneficial Research Relationships.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2021.102.022\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2021.102.022<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Agroecology Summit \u2018Outside Empire\u2019 Subgroup. 2024. \u201cA declaration of commitments toward agroecology pluralities: A critical gaze on the U.S. Agroecology Summit 2023.\u201d <em>Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development<\/em> (3): 85\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2024.133.013.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2024.133.013.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Black Earth Wisdom. 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/blackearthwisdom.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/blackearthwisdom.org\/.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brones, Anna. 2018. \u201cKaren Washington: It\u2019s Not a Food Desert, It\u2019s Food Apartheid,\u201d <em>Guernica<\/em>, May 7, 2018. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guernicamag.com\/karen-washington-its-not-a-food-desert-its-food-apartheid\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.guernicamag.com\/karen-washington-its-not-a-food-desert-its-food-apartheid\/.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>CAGJ\/AGRA Watch. 2022. \u201cAgroecology in Action.\u201d Vimeo video, 06:15. Posted December 13, 2022. <a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/778575581\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/vimeo.com\/778575581<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fals-Borda, Orlando and Muhammad Anisur Rahman, eds. 1991. <em>Action and Knowledge: Breaking the Monopoly with Participatory Action-Research. <\/em>Intermediate Technology Publications.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Farm Journal. 2020. \u201cWorld Running Out of Farmland\u201d <em>Farm Journal AgWeb<\/em>, November 22, 2020. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.agweb.com\/opinion\/world-running-out-farmland\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.agweb.com\/opinion\/world-running-out-farmland<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hernandez, Jessica PhD. 2022. <em>Fresh Banana Leaves. <\/em>North Atlantic Books.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hodgkin, Toby, Danny Hunter, Sylvia Wood, and Nicole Demers. 2015. \u201cAgricultural biodiversity and food security.\u201d In <em>Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health. <\/em>World Health Organization.<em> <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbd.int\/health\/SOK-biodiversity-en.pdf.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.cbd.int\/health\/SOK-biodiversity-en.pdf.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>hooks, bell. 2020. \u201cTouching the Earth.\u201d <em>Nature and Justice<\/em>, April 2020. <a href=\"https:\/\/orionmagazine.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/bellhooksarticle.pdf.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/orionmagazine.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/bellhooksarticle.pdf.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>La Via Campesina. 2022. \u201cWe Feed the World!\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/viacampesina.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/11\/LVC-We-Feed-the-World-A5-EN-compressed.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/viacampesina.org\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/11\/LVC-We-Feed-the-World-A5-EN-compressed.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Penniman, Leah. 2018. <em>Farming While Black. <\/em>Chelsea Green Publishing. <a href=\"\/Users\/NGdes\/Downloads\/farming%20while%20black-%20(1).pdf.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">file:\/\/\/C:\/Users\/NGdes\/Downloads\/farming%20while%20black-%20(1).pdf.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ranganathan, Malini. 2017. \u201cThe Environment as Freedom: A Decolonial Reimagining,\u201d <em>Social Science Research Council<\/em>, June 13, 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/items.ssrc.org\/just-environments\/the-environment-as-freedom-a-decolonial-reimagining\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/items.ssrc.org\/just-environments\/the-environment-as-freedom-a-decolonial-reimagining\/.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rawal, Sanjay, director. 2020. <em>Gather<\/em>. Illumine Running, LLC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.kanopy.com\/en\/product\/gather\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.kanopy.com\/en\/product\/gather<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. 2014. \u201cLand as pedagogy: Nishnaabeg intelligence and rebellious transformation.\u201d <em>Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education, &amp; Society<\/em> 3 (3). <a href=\"https:\/\/whereareyouquetzalcoatl.com\/mesofigurineproject\/EthnicAndIndigenousStudiesArticles\/Simpson2014.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/whereareyouquetzalcoatl.com\/mesofigurineproject\/EthnicAndIndigenousStudiesArticles\/Simpson2014.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>TallBear, Kim. 2014. \u201cStanding With and Speaking as Faith: A Feminist-Indigenous Approach to Inquiry,\u201d <em>Journal of Research Practice<\/em> 10 (2). <a href=\"http:\/\/jrp.icaap.org\/index.php\/jrp\/article\/view\/405\/371.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/jrp.icaap.org\/index.php\/jrp\/article\/view\/405\/371.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Justice Net. 1991. \u201cThe Principles of Environmental Justice.\u201d Delegates to the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ejnet.org\/ej\/principles.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.ejnet.org\/ej\/principles.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Thompson, Brain and Michelle Tang. 2024. <em>Farms. Food. Future.<\/em> \u201cThe Indigenous Peoples stewarding the planet.\u201d IFAD, August 9, 2024. Podcast, 05:30. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ifad.org\/en\/w\/podcast\/podcast-episode-65\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.ifad.org\/en\/w\/podcast\/podcast-episode-65<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Toledo, Victor M. 2022. \u201cAgroecology and spirituality: reflections about an unrecognized link,\u201d <em>Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems<\/em> 46 (4). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21683565.2022.2027842.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21683565.2022.2027842.<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>UNESC. 2022. <em>Knowledge-driven actions: Transforming higher education for global sustainability.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54675\/YBTV1653\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54675\/YBTV1653<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Sade Goodridge, American University&nbsp; Cite as: Goodridge, Sade. 2025. \u201cThe Role of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Climate-resilient Food Systems\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28968389.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/the-role-of-indigenous-ecological-knowledge-in-climate-resilient-food-systems\/&nbsp; Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Quietly but steadily, the world is running out of farmland. Unless substantial changes [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-442","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/442","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=442"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/442\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=442"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":441,"date":"2025-05-05T20:31:02","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:31:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=441"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:31:03","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:31:03","slug":"students-recycling-savvy","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/students-recycling-savvy\/","title":{"rendered":"Students\u2019 Recycling Savvy"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Emily Wright, American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Wright, Emily. 2025. \u201cStudents\u2019 Recycling Savvy\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00019. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28908854\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908854<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/students-recycling-savvy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/students-recycling-savvy\/<\/a> &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Students-Recycling-Savvy.pdf\">here<\/a>\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Purpose<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This research project assesses American University students&#8217; knowledge and comprehension of properly categorizing items into the three waste bins on campus: trash, mixed recycling, and organic waste. Specifically, the study evaluates students&#8217; understanding of appropriate waste disposal within the university&#8217;s designated bins. The research interest originates from discussions in the Food for Thought class that explored the importance of food waste management and various composting methods, emphasizing reduction and recycling over disposal. A strong commitment to campus sustainability drives this study, recognizing the collective power of students in fostering meaningful environmental change within the university community. This research question highlights the necessity of education and awareness in proper waste management. A lack of knowledge in this area may indicate the need for educational initiatives promoting responsible waste disposal practices. American University upholds a zero-waste initiative, including food waste recovery and composting efforts. This study aims to provide insight into students&#8217; understanding of the waste bins encountered daily on campus.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Introduction&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A study by M Afzal et al. found that \u201c2.6 billion people or 39 percent of the world population do not use proper methods for waste disposal\u201d (2018). This alarming statistic highlights the need to address waste disposal practices across all sectors, including college campuses. As hubs for learning and awareness, universities play a crucial role in shaping students&#8217; understanding of sustainability. However, instances of improper waste disposal among students suggest a gap in their knowledge of sustainable practices. A case study from the Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies revealed that \u201cstudents are generally aware of waste problems\u201d and \u201care generally concerned about the environment, natural resources, and waste management\u201d (Tartiui 2011). Such findings are promising, as students make daily choices that influence the environment, and their actions today can shape future waste management efforts. Educating students at a younger age fosters long-term change, improving waste disposal habits both on campus and in their communities. Research by Campos et al. demonstrated that a simple awareness campaign in a university canteen successfully reduced avoidable food waste. The study emphasized that \u201csimple strategies may be useful to improve behaviors and increase the sustainability of the canteens at Universities, although this proved to be only efficient with the collaboration of the canteen staff that needs solid education\u201d (Campos et al. 2018).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Research Question&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This research project aims to assess how well American University students know the proper disposal of items in the designated waste bins on campus.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Data Collection&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To assess American University students&#8217; knowledge of proper waste disposal, observations were conducted at Freshens, a popular dining spot on campus offering smoothies, salads, and wraps. Freshens attracts a high volume of students throughout the day. On November 15th, 2023, from 2:30 pm to 3:00 pm, a thirty-minute observation took place to analyze how students discard their waste. Additionally, a Google survey was distributed to nineteen American University students, including classmates from the Food for Thought course and other peers. Waste disposal behavior was also recorded by tallying which of the three designated bins were used by twenty-two observed students. The target audience for both studies consisted of full-time undergraduate students at American University.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A tally mark was made for every time a student put items into these bins at Freshens:&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Trash (landfill)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Mixed recycling&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Organic waste (compost)&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The Google survey questions asked are:&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>How often do you encounter confusion regarding which waste bin to use for specific items on campus? (Likert scale)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Responses were in the form of Very frequently, Frequently, Occasionally, Rarely, Never&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"2\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>How familiar are you with the types of waste that goes into each bin on campus? (Likert scale)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Responses were in the form of Agree, Somewhat agree, Neither agree or disagree, Somewhat disagree, Disagree&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"3\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>To what extent do you think the university community is educated about the impact of proper waste disposal? (Likert scale)&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Responses were in the form of Not at all educated, Slightly educated, Moderately educated, Very educated, Extremely educated&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Findings<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Theme #1: Google Survey<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Google survey conducted on nineteen students reveals that a significant portion of these students lack a clear understanding of the designated purposes for each waste bin on campus. Fifteen students need clarification regarding which waste bin to use for which items occasionally or frequently. This highlights a notable gap in knowledge concerning proper waste sorting practices and suggests a need for educational interventions to enhance students&#8217; understanding of sustainable waste disposal practices. Only two out of the nineteen students believe that the university community is educated about the impact of proper waste disposal. This perception suggests an overarching belief that there is a lack of knowledge within the university community when it comes to discarding waste responsibly.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"633\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11-1024x633.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-414\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11-1024x633.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11-300x186.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11-768x475.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11-904x559.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-11.png 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 1: Responses to the question \u201cHow familiar are you with the types of waste that go into each bin on campus?<\/em>&nbsp;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"633\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12-1024x633.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-415\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12-1024x633.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12-300x186.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12-768x475.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12-904x559.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-12.png 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 2: Responses to the question \u201cHow often do you encounter confusion regarding which waste bin to use for specific items on campus?\u201d<\/em>&nbsp;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"633\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14-1024x633.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-417\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14-1024x633.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14-300x186.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14-768x475.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14-904x559.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-14.png 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 3: Reponses to the question \u201cTo what extent do you think that the university community is educated about the impact of proper waste disposal?\u201d&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Theme #2: Observations&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Observations at Freshens:&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>13 students discarded their items using the trash (landfill) bin.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>5 students discarded their items using the mixed recycling.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>4 students discarded their items using the organic waste (compost) bin.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Out of the twenty-two students observed, a substantial portion, specifically thirteen students, opted to discard their items in the trash bin. In contrast, only five students chose the mixed recycling bin, and a mere four students utilized the organic waste bin. This data is crucial for several reasons. This sheds light on the predominant waste disposal behavior among students on campus. Thirteen students opted for the landfill bin indicating a potential lack of awareness or understanding of the distinction. The significance of this observation becomes apparent when considering the university&#8217;s commitment to sustainability and zero-waste initiatives. Proper waste disposal aligns with these initiatives and contributes to a more environmentally friendly campus.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"633\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13-1024x633.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-416\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13-1024x633.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13-300x186.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13-768x475.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13-904x559.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-13.png 1200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 4: Results of Google Survey asking American University students how they normally discard of their waste.<\/em>&nbsp;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Implications&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A Google survey and observations at Freshens among American University students indicate widespread challenges in understanding proper waste disposal, with many defaulting to the landfill bin. This highlights a pressing need for targeted efforts to improve education and awareness on campus. Addressing this issue presents an opportunity to advocate for educational programs that clearly differentiate between trash, mixed recycling, and organic waste bins across campus. Effective communication is essential in promoting sustainable waste practices. In response to these challenges, collaborative initiatives such as educational workshops and awareness campaigns can be developed and implemented. Establishing mechanisms for continuous community feedback will further support a culture of informed and responsible waste disposal at American University.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The research project evaluated American University students&#8217; knowledge of waste disposal practices, specifically their ability to categorize items into the three campus bins: trash, mixed recycling, and organic waste. A Google survey conducted with nineteen students revealed significant confusion, with fifteen uncertain about the correct bin for various items. This finding underscores the need for educational interventions to improve sustainable waste disposal. Observations of twenty-two students further reinforced this issue, as thirteen primarily disposed of items in the trash bin, suggesting a potential lack of awareness. These results highlight the importance of educational initiatives in promoting responsible waste disposal practices, aligning with the university&#8217;s sustainability goals. A key takeaway from the research is the critical need to enhance awareness and education on proper waste management among American University students.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>C\u00e1mpos, Suzana Santos, Cl\u00e1udia Marques-dos-Santos Cardovil, Felipe Fochat Silva Melo, Renata Soares Pinto, and Renata Machado dos Santos Pinto. 2018. &#8220;A Simple Awareness Campaign to Promote Food Waste Reduction in a University Canteen.&#8221; <em>Waste Management<\/em>, 76: 28-38. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.wasman.2018.02.044\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.wasman.2018.02.044<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0956053X18301107\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0956053X18301107<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Afzal, Muhammad, Syed Amira Gilani, Muhammad Hussain, Ambrin Shahzadi. 2018. &#8220;Determination of the Level of Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices Regarding Household Waste Disposal among People in Rural Community of Lahore&#8230;.&#8221; International Journal of Social Sciences and Management 5 (3): 219-224. <a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3126\/ijssm.v5i3.20614\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3126\/ijssm.v5i3.20614<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tartiui, Valentina Elena. 2011. &#8220;Evaluation of Attitudes &amp; Knowledge Regarding Municipal Waste Among Students. Case study: Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies.&#8221; RePEc. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/227490105_Evaluation_of_Attitudes_Knowledge_Regarding_Municipal_Waste_among_Students_Case_study_Bucharest_Academy_of_Economic_Studies\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/227490105_Evaluation_of_Attitudes_Knowledge_Regarding_Municipal_Waste_among_Students_Case_study_Bucharest_Academy_of_Economic_Studies<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Emily Wright, American University&nbsp; Cite as: Wright, Emily. 2025. \u201cStudents\u2019 Recycling Savvy\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908854.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/students-recycling-savvy\/ &nbsp; Please click here\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Purpose&nbsp; This research project assesses American University students&#8217; knowledge and comprehension of properly categorizing items into the three waste bins [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-441","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/441","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=441"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/441\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=441"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":440,"date":"2025-05-05T20:30:20","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:30:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=440"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:30:21","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:30:21","slug":"shaping-waste-attitudes-a-psychological-analysis","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/shaping-waste-attitudes-a-psychological-analysis\/","title":{"rendered":"Shaping Waste Attitudes: A Psychological Analysis"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Kai Foust, Rochester Institute of Technology&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Foust, Kai. 2025. \u201cShaping Waste Attitudes: A Psychological Analysis\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00018. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28908938\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908938<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/shaping-waste-attitudes-a-psychological-analysis\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/shaping-waste-attitudes-a-psychological-analysis\/<\/a> &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Shaping-Waste-Attitudes-A-Psychological-Analysis-.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Introduction<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are several methods in which we can approach the perceptions and reactions to food waste. Relevant methods for this peer analysis research could include positive reinforcement for actions of waste prevention, monitoring, and management. These behaviors could be reflected through habits of meal planning, planned purchasing, waste separation or composting. Influencing the formation of sustainable habits and motivation remains a lofty goal when considering the size of this country alone, which consists of roughly 323.29 million people with varying experiences, cultures, and beliefs.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Abstract<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Where does food waste begin and where does it end? Food waste is a pervasive problem that exists within sectors of agriculture, economics, engineering and culture. Beyond accounting for roughly \u201c21% of [our] freshwater, 19% of our fertilizers, 18% of our cropland&#8230; [and] 21% of our landfill volume,\u201d (Lewis 2022, 1) waste has historically accounted for \u201c$161 billion [about $500 per person in the U.S.] worth of food in 2010 [alone]\u201d (U.S. Department of Agriculture 2023, 1). These figures have only risen since 2010, with an estimated increase of 5% from 2010 to 2024. Each sector within the agricultural cycle is offering new solutions to slow the effects of this problem through methods of direct physical influence or social communication. Physical solutions offer an engineer&#8217;s approach by implementing systems of anaerobic digesters, composters, or incinerators to deal with post-consumer waste via disposal or repurposing. Although these solutions have been shown to successfully reduce food waste, they contribute to the principle of sum cost. This principle states that there is an increased possibility of inflicting feelings of obligation to manage and use these processes onto participating individuals, which may be detrimental to American families and businesses that will not receive additional funding.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What if a costless approach was considered? How could behavior observation and alteration mitigate food waste? Food waste behavior is a learned response to the issues present within the global circular cycle. The unregulated and unhealthy approach to over-farming, processing, distribution, and consumption normalizes waste behavior. Furthermore, the industrialization and commercialization of agriculture has put forth an unrealistic standard for \u201cquality\u201d and \u201cportion,\u201d which is then reflected through self-reported data depicting that consumers justify waste due to inadequate quality or overwhelming portions. These \u201cjustifications\u201d are internal responses to learned or observed behavior over time. The presence of these unsustainable environmental cues triggers a lack of urgency and poor habitual behaviors.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Background<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Food waste is a systemic crisis, but what can consumers do about it? According to the \u201cReduce and Reuse: Reimagining Food Waste\u201d panel that took place in the United States on August 29, 2016, roughly 30-40% of food produced in the U.S. was wasted annually and approximately 31-44% of that was by consumers alone. This baseline remains, with \u201cU.S. families self-report[ing] a 280% increase in discarded food between early 2021 and early 2022\u201d (Ellison and Wilson 2023, 1). By breaking down the statistics of what is commonly wasted, it can be observed that from 2015 to 2024, almost 50% of purchased seafood was wasted while other forms of waste included 22% of purchased meat, 52% of produce, 38% of grains, and 20% of purchased dairy products. Furthermore, \u201cThe Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) established that food waste ends up wasting a quarter of our water supply in the form of uneaten food\u201d (Lewis 2022). This translates to $392 billion (about $1,200 per person in the U.S.) in water wasted to \u201cgrow, transport and process 70 million tons of food that eventually ends up in landfills\u201d (Lewis 2022). When comparing this data with self-reported causes of waste, some common patterns arise in relation to health concerns regarding storing specific products and short shelf lives. Still, aside the tangible food wasted, Lewis states in in How Does Food Waste Affect the Environment? that \u201cwhen we throw away food, we also throw away the precious resources that went into producing this food. This includes the use of land and natural resources, the social cost to the environment, and our biodiversity\u201d (2022). The waste to resource ratio is often grossly underestimated, but it \u201caccounts for one-third of all human-caused greenhouse gas emissions, generate[ing] 8% of greenhouse gases annually\u201d (Lewis 2022). An attempt to eliminate food waste is plausible by observing actions beyond the home, in which behavior can be broken down by considering individual habits and the presence of waste behavior in relation to the effects such behavior can have on the environment and economy.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Analysis<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Breaking down behavior<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"670\" height=\"364\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-10.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-413\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-10.png 670w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/image-10-300x163.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 670px) 100vw, 670px\" \/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Figure 1<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To uncover the causes and justifications of waste behavior, a solid understanding of where these reactions come from and why they persist is necessary. The suggested causes of waste behavior in Figure 1 are derived from the structure of the norm activation model created by Gerrit Antonides, Jos Bartels, and Marleen C. Onwezen in 2013 to define the relationships between natural concepts and the indirect or direct personal experiences of the consumer. Antonides et al. note that \u201cthe main causes associated with food waste at final consumption level relate to an incorrect interpretation of expiration dates, inadequate sales planning, the lack of proper food storage, a lack of culinary skills that allow the individuals to reuse food scraps in other recipes, and in certain countries the use of big portion sizes that end up not being consumed (BCFN 2012)\u201d (Ludovica 2018, 7). For example, children may learn through experience that a food item becomes inedible when past expiration. In response, the child or their guardian may have thrown away the food. This lesson creates a prototype of \u2019correct\u2019 behavior associated with the event, resulting in the creation of unconscious behavior. By using the irresponsible behavior flow chart depicted, waste behavior can be broken down into categories of conscious or unconscious behavior that may be linked to external or internal causes motivating the responsive behavior. In this case, conscious behavior is linked to reactions of habits, income, or emotion, while unconscious behavior is linked to ignorance or a diffusion of responsibility. These response behaviors can be applied to food waste in the sense of how consumers respond or to waste responsibilities.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Education<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Education is a crucial factor in determining how consumers react and process thoughts and actions in response to stimuli that may be unsavory or confusing. Many individuals experience various levels of cognitive dissonance when it comes to food waste, meaning that most people recognize the need for waste mitigation but do not because they are unaware of how to do so. Nils-Gerrit Wunsch, a senior expert in global food and nutrition, found that 50% of individuals in Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States believe food waste is morally wrong while others expressed external reasons for believing in the mitigation of food waste such as privilege, environmental awareness, and economy (2020). Considering such statistics, most individuals have a self-reported interest in mitigating food waste but do not have the resources or knowledge to reflect internal feelings by acting.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, dealing with food waste once it is physically present is not the only issue. In the United States, ambiguous definitions and different state laws cause an increase in waste behavior in response to a \u2018misleading\u2019 status quo. As a country, consumers have been unconsciously conditioned to believe that food becomes inedible once the packaging date passes, when most products are still safe to consume. According to the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, \u2018Best By&#8217; and \u2018Use By\u2019 labels are used to indicate to consumers \u201cwhen a product will have the best flavor or quality\u201d while \u2018Sell By\u2019 dates are used to inform stores \u201chow long to display the product for sale&#8221; while \u2018Freeze By\u2019 [dates] are used to indicate to both stores and consumers \u201cwhen a product should be frozen to maintain peak quality\u201d (Brown 2021, 1). Additionally, in large stores like Sam&#8217;s Club or Costco, there are distinct types of food labels that can be identified as open dated or closed dated. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection service, \u201cOpen dating is easier for consumers to read and understand. It shows a day and month (and year for frozen and nonperishable items)\u201d (Brown 2021, 1). Open dating uses phrases such as \u2019Best-By,\u2019 \u2019Use-By,\u2019 or \u2019Sell-By\u2018 while \u201cClosed dating consists of a series of numbers and\/or letters that tell the day the product was made and is usually used on boxed or other non-perishable items that can be stored at room temperature\u201d (Brown 2021, 1). Regardless of whether Americans know the differences, a substantial portion have been shown to default to habitual behavior formed over time from a lack of clear communication from stores and companies regarding food expiration.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Methods<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Habit Formation&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Habit formation is a learned response to the repetitive routine or occurrence of a specific cue, response, and outcome. This process can begin with a stimulus of any size that triggers the recognition or parallel to an associated action or event, resulting in the action or event being performed. If successful, this process concludes in the expected outcome that serves as a type of internal or external reward for reacting to the stimulus by completing the anticipated action. However, for the stimuli to be recognized, there must be a goal associated with the actions or thoughts being performed. This process is crucial to improving perception of food waste by first having families identify current habits and how they can incorporate sustainable practices in their place. When dealing with food waste, consumers tend to default to the \u201ceasiest\u201d option of throwing anything and everything in a single bin. Normalizing this method forms unconscious habits as a result. A way to combat this would be to tap into operant conditioning by implementing sustainable habits such as meal planning, planned purchasing, waste separation, or composting into daily or weekly routines, followed by a positive association. This association could be sourced from external or internal factors due to the necessity of positive association and reinforcement. When the new behavior is reinforced or associated with a specific time or event, it has a higher chance of becoming a habit. A possible way of implementing this type of habit training would be to create a sense of normalcy in the environment that will positively correlate to the desired behavior and incorporate a reminder to complete the action within a continuous schedule while pairing the reaction with a positive stimulus.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A different approach to the formation of sustainable habits can involve the manipulation of personal motivation. A reactive behavior previously mentioned was laziness; in most cases, this emotion can stem from a lack of motivation, goal or ambition. By creating new motivation for sustainable waste habits, food waste can be approached differently. This process could begin by slowly incorporating ideas of extrinsic (external) motivation such as increased funds, less smell, or other external sources of satisfaction until the association of these actions become intrinsic (internal) motivators that could include feelings of self-importance, pride, contentment, or ambition.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Additional Research<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The behavioral approach towards waste mitigation has been extensively researched through the analysis of various theories, including the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the social learning theory, the social conformity theory, and the bystander effect. Each theory implements a different function of waste behavior. The TPB suggests a link between personal beliefs and behavior by connecting attitudes, subjective norms and self-control to behavioral intentions. Unlike social learning and conformity theories, which focus on external influences on behavior, the TPB focuses on how the individual&#8217;s internal beliefs can be expressed through external actions. Theories of social learning and conformity consider this subject of research by highlighting the correlation of observational learning and peer pressure on external behavior. These theories approach the analysis of individual action with the consideration of external influencers. Similarly, the bystander effect suggests the correlation between a diffusion of responsibility with waste behavior due to a belief that the responsibility for addressing waste lies with a power greater than themselves\u2014in this case, the government or producer business supplying the product. The presence of this effect may increase the chance of consumers experiencing levels of cognitive dissonance towards waste disposal and reacting by not taking personal action. By breaking down relevant behavioral theories, a deeper understanding of waste behavior can be observed and researched. In the context of food waste, these theories guide sociocultural research towards individuals&#8217; beliefs, habit formations, and social pressures.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Approaching waste mitigation through cognitive understanding and sociocultural observation has been shown to depict waste demographics categorically and numerically by considering the beliefs, habits and expectations held by each individual sector of the production cycle. When hypothesizing and experimenting with potential solutions to a systemic issue as extensive as food waste, simply asking \u201cwhy\u201d will not yield an answer, but another question. This analysis explores possible actions consumers can take to mitigate household waste behavior at a minimal financial cost. This includes self-analysis, self-education of sustainable habits, reworking of habitual behavior and enforcement of sustainable activities.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Afridi, Muhammad Asim, Shakir Hafeez, and Muhammad Wasif Hanif. 2023. &#8220;Does Wastophobia Bring Sustainability in Consumers\u2019 Responsible Behavior? A Case of Electricity Waste Management.&#8221; <em>International Journal of Energy Sector Management<\/em> 17 (2): 265-287. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/IJESM-07-2021-0013\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">HTTPs:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/IJESM-07-2021-0013<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Anekwe, T.D., Cho, C., Dicken, C., Effland, A., Elitzak, H., Guthrie, J., Hamrick, K., Hyman, J., Jo, Y., Lin, B., Mancino, L., McLaughlin, P.W., Okrent, A., Rahkovsky, I., Ralston, K., Saksena, M., Smith, T.A., Stewart, H., Todd, J.E., and Tuttle, C. 2018. <em>America\u2019s Eating Habits: Food Away From Home<\/em>. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brenna, Ellison and Wilson, Norbert. 2023. \u201cE206: Results from a National Household Food Waste Survey. The Leading Voices in Food.\u201d World Food Policy Center, June 6, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/wfpc.sanford.duke.edu\/podcasts\/national-household-food-wastesurvey\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/wfpc.sanford.duke.edu\/podcasts\/national-household-food-wastesurvey\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brown, Isabel. 2021. \u201c&#8217;Best by&#8217; vs. &#8216;Use by&#8217;: What you need to know about food dating.\u201d <em>PIRG, <\/em>September 14, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/pirg.org\/edfund\/resources\/best-by-vs-use-bywhat-you-need-to-know-about-food-dating\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/pirg.org\/edfund\/resources\/best-by-vs-use-bywhat-you-need-to-know-about-food-dating\/<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lewis, Jangira. 2022. \u201cHow Does Food Waste Affect the Environment?\u201d <em>Earth.org<\/em>, October 17, 2022. <a href=\"https:\/\/earth.org\/how-does-food-waste-affect-the-environment\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/earth.org\/how-does-food-waste-affect-the-environment\/<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>NeuroLaunch. 2024. \u201cPsychology Behind Habits: Unraveling the Science of Behavior Formation.\u201d <em>NeuroLaunch<\/em>, September 15, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/neurolaunch.com\/psychology-behind-habits\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/neurolaunch.com\/psychology-behind-habits\/<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Principato, Ludovica. 2018. <em>Food Waste at Consumer Level: A Comprehensive Literature Review<\/em>. Springer International Publishing. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-78887-6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-78887-6<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Qi, Danyi, and Brian E. Roe. 2016. \u201cHousehold Food Waste: Multivariate Regression and Principal Components Analyses of Awareness and Attitudes among U.S. Consumers.\u201d <em>PLoS ONE<\/em> 11(7). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0159250\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0159250<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2023. \u201cFood Product Dating | Food Safety and Inspection Service.\u201d USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fsis.usda.gov\/food-safety\/safe-food-handling-and-preparation\/food-safety-basics\/food-product-dating.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.fsis.usda.gov\/food-safety\/safe-food-handling-and-preparation\/food-safety-basics\/food-product-dating.<\/a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Verplanken, Bas. 2006. \u201cInterventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits.\u201d <em>Journal of Public Policy &amp; Marketing <\/em>25(1):<em> <\/em>90-103. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1509\/jppm.25.1.90.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1509\/jppm.25.1.90.<\/a>&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Kai Foust, Rochester Institute of Technology&nbsp; Cite as: Foust, Kai. 2025. \u201cShaping Waste Attitudes: A Psychological Analysis\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908938.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/shaping-waste-attitudes-a-psychological-analysis\/ &nbsp; Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Introduction&nbsp; There are several methods in which we can approach the perceptions and reactions [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-440","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/440","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=440"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/440\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=440"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":439,"date":"2025-05-05T20:29:42","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:29:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=439"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:29:43","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:29:43","slug":"policy-brief-the-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-district-of-columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/policy-brief-the-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-district-of-columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship\/","title":{"rendered":"Policy Brief: The opportunities and shortcomings of the District of Columbia\u2019s composting governance and stewardship"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Luke Carignan, American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Carignan, Luke. 2025. \u201cPolicy Brief: The Opportunities and Shortcomings of the District of Columbia\u2019s Composting Governance and Stewardship\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00017. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28908071?file=54111308\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908071<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/policy-brief-the-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-district-of-columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/policy-brief-the-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-district-of-columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship\/<\/a> &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Policy-Brief-The-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-District-of-Columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship.pdf\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Policy-Brief-The-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-District-of-Columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship.pdf\">here<\/a>\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Purpose<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The purpose of this policy brief is to inform on the current composting rates, laws and initiatives in the District of Columbia, and to expand upon the Zero Waste DC Plan by offering insights and strategies for the Plan\u2019s proposed composting solutions. As part of the Zero Waste DC Plan for achieving \u201czero waste\u201d status\u2014which is diverting 80% or more of city\u2019s waste from landfills to recycling or organics processing facilities\u2014by 2032, there are many strategies proposed to increase organic waste diversion in order to speed up the process to meet this goal. Specific solutions must be implemented quickly to see immediate results for food waste diversion and other environmental concerns. More specifically, methane emissions that come from organic materials ending up in landfills\u2014instead of composting facilities\u2014should represent an obvious area of immediate District climate action due to how quickly the benefits of capital investments in composting programs materialize (Environmental Protection Agency 2020). If the District would like to address its impact on climate change and brand itself as a green city, it is imperative that composting programs be expanded quickly and broadly across Washington to limit its potent methane emissions associated with landfilled organic waste. This brief reviews many composting projects and strategies of varying scales that aim to increase community engagement in composting with the ethos that all communities should receive equal access to and benefit from any forthcoming composting proposals.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Background Context<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Increasing waste diversion rate<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The District of Columbia boasted a 16.11% citywide waste diversion rate in 2018 with a citywide waste output of 1.1 million tons of waste produced (DC Office of Waste Diversion, n.d.). Since then, the citywide waste diversion rate continues to increase up to 27.93% in 2022 (DC Office of Waste Diversion, n.d.). Furthermore, total citywide solid waste generation decreased from 1,100,000 tons in 2018 to an estimated roughly 1,017,000 tons in 2022. As estimated citywide waste generation declined since 2018, so has per capita waste generation. In 2018, per capita waste generation was 8.89 lbs\/day and has since gone down over 3 lbs\/day to 5.84 lbs\/day in 2022. However, since 2020, there has been an increase in per capita waste generation from 5.12 lbs\/day to the 5.84 lbs\/day estimated (DC Office of Waste Diversion, n.d.). As the District continues to bring people back into the office and into new housing developments, this figure could increase again without proper waste management (DC Government 2024). Once released, waste generation data from 2023 and 2024 could identify the continued trajectory of per capita waste generation in the District post-COVID. Overall, the waste diversion rate is on par with many other U.S. cities, and better than many, especially given the availability of this waste diversion data for Washington. Because waste management practices are improving and requiring more people and organizations to get involved in waste diversion, the future is bright for Washington\u2019s waste diversion goal of meeting 80% waste diversion.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>District law on composting&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020 and the Sustainable DC Omnibus Amendment Act of 2014 provide guidance and regulatory requirements for limiting food waste and diverting organic waste\u2014which are compostable materials including foods, leaf and yard waste, and otherwise generated waste that is derived from plants or an animal\u2014through composting. Some of these requirements include retail food stores with &gt;10,000 square feet of floor space needing to either send their back-of-house food waste to an organic waste facility or compost the waste on-site, among other options for disposing food waste (Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020, Section 8\u20131031.03a (2020)). This requirement for retail businesses\u2014which is also applicable to higher education institutions, retail chain food stores, and others\u2014displays the District\u2019s aspirations for diverting food waste on a commercial scale. The acts also require the DC Department of Public Works (DPW) to run a grant program for businesses and nonprofits to purchase on-site composting systems (Zero Waste Omnibus 2020, Section 8\u20131031.12c (2020)), and propose that all waste characterization studies produced by the District include summaries on the organic waste management efforts of each DC agency (Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020, Section 8\u20131031.13 (2020)). While legislation mandating commercial composting and waste sorting is coming into effect today, there still exists gaps in legislation for requiring residents and single-family households to compost and sort their waste beyond just landfill and recycling. Cities like Seattle and San Francisco mandate that all residents put all recyclable materials in recycling bins and compostable materials in compostable bins, and the District is primed to follow suit with action 15 of the Zero Waste DC Plan (Zero Waste DC 2024).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Current composting programs&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Community Compost Cooperative Network provides compost bins at 50 sites around Washington, and \u201ctrained community members\u201d help to compost food scraps and garden waste (DC Department of Parks and Recreation, n.d.). The program has an active capacity of 5,000 volunteers and collection of 50 tons of material \u201cwith no operating costs and no carbon footprint\u201d; however, currently the program is running at one-fifth participant capacity and two-fifth material capacity, meaning the program is highly underutilized (DC Department of Parks and Recreation, n.d.). Some of the barriers to the low active participation could be the requirements needed to become a member of the Network, accessibility of the site location to public transit, or lack of promotion of this co-op.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Food-Waste Drop Off Program has the largest resident population reach of any composting program in the District, with 12 collection sites located across all eight wards, with Ward 3 currently served by the most drop off points (DOPs) at three, and Wards 2, 5 and 8 all only served by one DOP (Open Data DC, n.d.). Because these DOPs are all located at a farmer\u2019s market, dropping off food waste is only possible while the farmers market is open. Each DOP was chosen with the prerequisite that the market is open year-round\u2014excluding wards that are served by multiple DOPs\u2014however issues like weather or staffing could push a market to not open on a given day. Further, each market is typically open one day a week, creating the issue of infrequent accessibility for residents to dispose of their food waste and therefore further inconveniencing resident composters. To help remedy this issue, the Food-Waste Drop Off Program is planning to expand DOPs by installing new \u201csmart food waste bins,\u201d with each installation site still being decided between the DC DPW and community members (Zero Waste DC, n.d.). These smart bins will always be locked but available 24\/7 to unlock and drop off food waste if you have the corresponding mobile app. In July 2024, one smart bin was installed in conjunction with George Washington University and is placed on the campus (Varner 2024). Since February 2024, 30 more smart bins have been installed across all eight Wards (DC Department of Public Works 2025). These smart bins will bridge that gap of infrequent access to community drop off points for food waste, however the digital divide is also an issue to consider for DPW and the DC government.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Curbside Composting Pilot Program is a vital new tool for assessing the viability of a public three-bin waste collection system. Launched in 2023, Washington residents who already receive trash and recycling collection services from DPW were able to sign up to have a third bin for household food waste be collected by DPW. Because it is a pilot program, only about 9,000 households were selected for weekly food waste collection (Fenston 2023). Under the program, participants received \u201cstarter kits\u201d including an indoor food waste bin and a larger outdoor bin. Participants also received bin liners, an information card on their respective weekly collection day (may differ from recycling and trash collection), and participants will receive 5 pounds of \u201cfinished compost\u201d after about a year of food-waste collection (Zero Waste DC, n.d.). Food waste is collected by the private company Compost Crew (Charles 2024). The program helps to provide insights in how DPW can manage the new waste source, as well as the logistical challenges related to providing bins and \u201cstarter kits\u201d to residents and the capacity of transfer stations and food-waste processing facilities in Maryland and Virginia. Notably, items such as compostable utensils and isolated fats or grease (in large quantities) cannot be collected, therefore education will be necessary to ensure contaminated (non-compostable) materials are not placed in the food waste bins. After a successful program completion in the Fall of 2024, the program maintaining services for at least another year, and \u201cDPW aims to add a limited number of new households as current participants move away or opt-out\u201d and \u201cpriority will be given to residents living in designated low-income and disadvantaged communities across the District\u201d (Zero Waste DC, n.d.).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Home Composting Program provides Washington residents with the opportunity to compost their organic waste themselves. Through this program, residents can learn about what composting is and how it can be done at home through one of DPW\u2019s workshops. To qualify for a maximum $75 rebate which goes towards purchasing a home composting system, residents must attend one of those workshops (Zero Waste DC, n.d.) This rebate is beneficial to residents who have backyard space and\/or want to properly dispose of their food waste and other yard waste in the same place. Given the scope of the Curbside Composting Pilot Program is limited to just food waste, and yard waste disposal is possible only by calling 311 and scheduling an appointment for pickup, the Home Composting Program bypasses the two-step process of disposing of food and yard waste separately by letting residents dispose of both in the same place: an at-home composter (Zero Waste DC, n.d.) Currently, this program is undergoing restructuring and is not holding workshops nor offering rebates until the program is relaunched. Residents can join a waitlist to participate in the free compost collection program in the future.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Methane Emissions Associated with Landfilled District Food Waste<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Methodology for estimating landfilled food waste methane emissions<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It is difficult to quantify exactly how much organic (including food) waste is sent to landfills each year from the District. However, this number is important to estimating associated methane emissions, and therefore methane emissions that could be avoided had the food waste been sent to an organics processing facility. For purposes of estimating methane emissions from food waste sent to landfills each year, data from a 2021 DPW Waste Characterization Study report was used. The report separates waste composition into \u201csingle residential,\u201d \u201cmulti-family residential,\u201d and \u201cnon-residential\u201d waste to see what building types were generating the most of each type of waste, notably food waste (DC Office of Waste Diversion). The most recent data used in the report came from 2018, therefore conclusions succeeding this methodology should be given caution. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#8217;s \u201cQuantifying Methane Emissions from Landfilled Food Waste\u201d guidance was used to make proper estimations on methane emissions associated with landfilled D.C. food waste. The scope of this estimation is limited to just food waste, as methane emissions associated with other types of possible landfilled organic waste\u2013including leaves, yard waste, and land clearing debris\u2013have different methane emissions factors that are not yet clearly defined. Further, food waste represented the largest share of total organic waste collected in 2018, with 13.8% of total estimated aggregate main-stream waste (MSW) generation, while yard waste and other organics were 4.5% and 3.1%, respectively. Notably, food waste\u2019s 13.8% share of total estimated MSW generation was the second highest of any waste type, only behind paper (31.1%) (DC Office of Waste Diversion 2021, 10).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Quantifying District food waste sent to landfills in 2018<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Based on the 2021 Waste Characterization Study, DPW estimated that 156,974 tons of food waste were generated in 2018. A 2018 DPW Citywide Waste Diversion Report found that 4,736.34 tons of food waste was sent to organic processing facilities, meaning the exact known quantity of food waste generated in 2018 was 4,736.34 tons (DC Office of Waste Diversion, n.d., 7). This leaves a gap of 152,238 tons between the total estimated and known food waste generated in 2018, however that gap is consistent with other reports completed by DPW on waste generation, including their most recent 2023 report (DC Office of Waste Diversion, n.d., 14). Based on the EPA\u2019s \u201cQuantifying Methane Emissions from Landfilled Food Waste\u201d guidance, the 152,238 tons of food waste that was not reported as sent to an organic processing facility was likely sent to landfills or an incinerator. In the scenario that all 152,238 tons were sent to landfills, that food waste would generate 5,176.092 metric tons of fugitive (released into the atmosphere) methane emissions and 3,349.566 metric tons of carbon that \u201cremains as carbon stored in the landfill,\u201d each over a 30-year period (Environmental Protection Agency 2023). Based on metrics reported by DPW in their 2018 Waste Diversion Report, about 50% of waste that was not diverted (through recycling or composting) was sent to a landfill, and the other 50% was sent to a waste-to-energy facility (Zero Waste DC, n.d., 8-10) Under this assumption, a more-accurate estimate of methane emissions from 2018 landfilled food waste is 22,588.046 metric tons of fugitive methane and 1674.783 metric tons of carbon remaining in the landfill. Burning food waste in waste-to-energy facilities does not typically emit methane, as decomposition is limited. Still, burning food waste does emit carbon dioxide.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Focusing on methane emissions to meet District Climate Goals<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Overall, the methane emission potential for the District\u2019s 2018 food waste was estimated at 2,588.06 metric tons. This is equivalent to the average annual methane emissions release for 21,612 cows (Environmental Protection Agency 2020). While 2,588.06 metric tons of methane is an approximation, it represents how much methane the District produced in 2018 as a result of not diverting food waste from landfills. Considering methane is 28 times more potent as a planet-warming gas compared to carbon dioxide, having 2,500 tons of avoidable methane emissions in one year is a significant obstruction to efforts of the District to participate in climate change mitigation efforts (Environmental Protection Agency 2020). However, methane is considered a \u201cshort-lived\u201d pollutant compared to carbon dioxide, as methane typically lives in the atmosphere for about 12 years before breaking down. Carbon dioxide that is not absorbed by plants or oceans can last in the atmosphere for hundreds to thousands of years, meaning carbon dioxide emitted now can impact the climate for potentially thousands of years in the future (Clark 2012). With this in mind, methane emissions should be an area of D.C. government focus in regard to climate change efforts, as limiting methane emissions now benefits the climate system sooner and with greater impact on planet-warming potential than carbon dioxide.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Alternative Solutions<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Biennial waste diversion reports<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Under District law, the mayor is required to compile a solid waste characterization study every four years, with many specifications relating to waste outputs, facilities used, and most notably the residential and citywide waste diversion rates Zero Waste Amendment Act of 2020, Section 8\u20131031.13 (2020)). However, in order to ensure that solid waste management efforts are upkept year-to-year, amending this law to require solid waste characterization studies every two years is vital. Amending the law would allow the District and DPW to change its course of action on composting programs and their funding depending on the changing needs of District residents and how they respond to new or expanded compost programs. Under current measures, as the fourth year of a study\u2019s use approaches, the data and information reported becomes less applicable to the current day, as waste diversion rates and total citywide waste generation can change based on population changes, funding gaps, etc. The more recent the data, the more appropriate it is to use in the development of composting programs. This timeline of biennial solid waste characterization studies is short and would likely incur costs related to labor and hiring consultants. However, it also requires the D.C. government to collect the information outlined under D.C. law regularly and abundantly, a benefit to transparency as well as cost-effectiveness of capital investments in composting infrastructure and initiatives. Furthermore, by studying and reporting waste generation and diversion biennially, resources can be properly allocated away from landfill waste collection and towards recycling and compost collection services; meaning, as DPW grows their recycling and composting efforts in the District, waste diversion activities including collection can likewise increase as they are demanded. Issues concerning budget constraints with enacting more composting programs in D.C. are remedied by (1) understanding the timeline and demand for upping programming, and (2) the costs associated with transporting organic waste to facilities outside D.C. are almost 30% cheaper than landfill waste transportation. According to DPW, while landfill waste costs the city $64\/ton to transport to facilities outside the District, organic waste costs the city only $45\/ton. Had the amount of landfill waste estimated for 2022 been organic waste, the District would have saved $13,857,637.30\u2013money that would completely fund all six Actions in the Zero Waste DC Plan dedicated to reducing per capita waste generation (Zero Waste DC 2024, 11).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Rebate for hiring private contractors&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To build on the existing methods of composting in the District, one method for increasing participation in composting is a rebate for residents to hire a private compost collector. Currently, there are three main companies that collect organic waste from residents in the DMV area. These include Compost Crew and Compost Cab, which offer commercial and residential organic waste pickup, and Veteran Compost DC which only deals with residential organic waste collection. Veteran Compost DC offers a $32\/month plan for at-home pick up or you can participate in an \u201con-farm bin swap\u201d for $15\/month (Veteran Compost DC, n.d.). Compost Cab also offers a $32\/month plan for at home pick up, however they will collect organic waste from office buildings for $90\/month or other commercial spaces depending on the size of the space (Compost Cab, n.d.). Compost Crew offers the same $32\/month plan, however some neighborhoods\/communities pay lower rates \u201cdue to the number of people already composting\u201d (Compost Crew, n.d.).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Compost Crew provides service to many communities at a discounted rate or free of charge, including City of College Park, Town of Chevy Chase, and City of Falls Church (Compost Crew, n.d). Given the proven method of support from towns and municipalities to provide Compost Crew\u2019s services to residents, the possibility of bringing such a rebate system to Washington is present with limitations. The scale of Compost Crew\u2019s staff and the facilities they bring compost to likely would not be able to support the hundreds of thousands of residents residing in single-family homes (McConnell and Sayin 2023). Furthermore, the cost incurred by the District for introducing a rebate program would likely be high compared to other programs and therefore require significant study of viability.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Action 32 of the Zero Waste DC Plan outlines providing \u201czero waste financial assistance\u201d for small businesses and organizations (Zero Waste DC 2024, 42). With this action, Zero Waste DC intends to create new tax credits for businesses to increase their waste diversion efforts and reduce overall waste output. However, amending action 32 to include financial assistance for residents would bring the opportunity for more people to have their compost collected.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To implement a private collection rebate in a financially feasible manner, priority could be given to residents with disabilities. Individuals with disabilities can often be overlooked in how environmental regulations and new practices affect them. For example, plastic straw bans make it harder for individuals with mobility issues to drink from a cup (Valley, n.d.) and farmer\u2019s markets may be inaccessible to individuals with mobility aids (Raposo, n.d.). In many cases, the fight to improve environmental conditions and decrease environmental footprints can leave out the voices of individuals with disabilities, and a program to offer free or reduced fare compost pick up for those individuals is a pillar to the overall goal of bringing composting to everyone in an accessible and equitable manner. Residents enrolled in the Supplemental Security Income Program or Medicaid could receive a full rebate for the $32\/month fee for at-home compost collection that is consistent among private compost collectors, or a reduced rate depending on the funding available for such a program.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another method for a rebate program is implementing a similar program to that in Maryland and Virginia municipalities where entire towns or communities receive reduced or free collection from Compost Crew, and focus could be set on areas of Washington, D.C. with high food insecurity. This method could be an agreement between DPW, Compost Crew, and the organic composting facilities Compost Crew delivered to; with the goal of increasing access to healthy food in food deserted communities through community gardens, compost collected by Compost Crew and brought to Virginia or Maryland could be brought back to those communities after the composting process is completed or \u201cfinished.\u201d With that finished compost, community gardens can continue to grow produce and help make healthy foods more accessible to food insecure communities, creating a local circular food model.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Composting guidance for multi-family buildings<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Action 24 of the Zero Waste DC Plan aims to require all new multi-family residential buildings\u2014buildings with 3 or more \u201cdwelling\u201d units\u2014to separate recycling and organics, adding to the current Green Construction Code that only mandates recycling separation (DC Department of Buildings, n.d.). The action has a target completion date for 2032 and would also include all existing multi-family residences to also separate recycling and organic waste (Zero Waste DC 2024, 13). Further, while the start-up costs are estimated to be between $0 and $999,999 (rated the lowest range for Start-Up Cost) the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction potential is rated third highest at between 30,000 and 59,999 metric tons CO<sub>2<\/sub> equivalent (MTCO<sub>2<\/sub>e). The GHG emission reduction effectiveness from a cheap upfront investment for requiring multi-family residences to sort recycling and organics is therefore high and an action that should be studied to implement sooner than 2032.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If the Green Construction Code is revised to include requirements on organic waste separation, standards and practices must be created to guide multiple dwellings in how to collect organic waste in ways that best suit the building. Buildings in Washington have different limitations to organic waste collection, including problems like rats that afflict many buildings, or odor from organic waste decomposition. Therefore, guidance on collecting organics should be researched and developed to address the barriers to apartment buildings collecting organic waste. Action 20 of the Zero Waste DC Plan outlines reducing barriers for residents to compost on-site and doing so for multiple dwellings is beneficial to residents and to local governments (Zero Waste DC 2024, 13). Guidance on on-site composting for apartment buildings and multiple dwellings may limit the amount of organic waste that would need to be collected by private haulers and therefore ensure capacity is not hit at the composting facilities in Maryland or Virginia. DPW\u2019s experience with operating community gardens would be valuable to any codes or guidance issued by DOB and DOEE for multiple dwellings to compost on-site and potentially use that compost in a garden. Further, the composting systems used in the Community Compost Cooperative Network could be emulated in multiple dwelling units with the number of composters installed varying based on the number of units in the building (DC Department of Parks and Recreation, n.d.).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Community gardens<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Community Gardens program, operated by DPR, is large in Washington, however expanding the program could benefit composting and food insecurity simultaneously, as well as the social benefits associated with community gardens. The program has gardens across all wards, with higher concentrations in northeast and southeast D.C. The southeast area particularly close to the Anacostia neighborhood has 6 community gardens established close to the DC-Maryland border (DC Department of Parks and Recreation, n.d.). However, in the same way on-site composting at multiple dwellings can help alleviate the capacity for organic waste processing facilities, so can community gardens, and the food they would provide is an obvious benefit. Community gardens also serve as a space for neighborhoods and communities to gather and potentially strengthen communal activism. They can also be an educational tool for youth empowerment. For children, community gardens are an out-of-school activity that teaches teamwork, the power of contributing to community, and the importance of nutrition (Ober Allen 2008). The structure of a community garden also provides youth with the guidance of following rules and the expectation of acting appropriately in social settings. New community gardens could be established in locations that already serve as community pillars for social engagement. For example, D.C. public libraries offer communities many services such as a social space to connect. The 26 public libraries across Washington could further serve as connection points with a community garden placed nearby (District of Columbia Public Library, n.d.).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Policy Recommendations<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Education and outreach programming<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Engaging the public in their input on composting programs and the benefits they hope to see is essential to any new composting policy or program. As such, the District of Columbia should move forward with their compost and food waste diversion goals with two focuses: one on programs, and one on people. To create the former, the latter must be addressed through engagement with residents of each ward to create educational content and build programs that are not just helpful for the District\u2019s composting rates but also for a community\u2019s needs and problems.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Using current community-based approaches to compost, such as food waste drop off points at farmers\u2019 markets, educational content created for composting initiatives must be relevant to a community. Each community and Ward has different needs and prevalent issues (Ward 8 is not going to have the same priorities as Ward 3, for example), so the way agencies educate residents on the correct way to sort waste and\/or compost must reflect the issues each ward cares about. For example, in areas of higher poverty and food stress, composting could be a tool to provide residents with fresh food through community gardening programs. Further, communities with multiple generations living within one household likely would be stressed for space, including freezer space. Freezers are commonly used to store organic waste from kitchen scraps to mitigate odor from decomposition. For large families in a household, freezer space might be limited and therefore freezing organics to limit odor may not be an option. Both examples present the reality that composting policy cannot be blanket and it cannot be done without community input, but what works in one community will not always work in another.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>One form of engagement with District communities should be the surveying of needs and barriers to composting. Surveying of similar information was completed as part of the Zero Waste DC Plan, where a 5,330 resident pool stated concerns for rodents (20.69%), accessibility to waste services (23.36%), and odor\/smell (4.37%) in regard to waste collection in their communities (Zero Waste DC 2024, 10). This data is important background information for Zero Waste DC to consider when completing new surveys about composting specific to certain communities. There are many methods available to gather information from communities, one of which is a simple survey that can be shared within Facebook groups. \u201cBuy Nothing\u201d groups are common in D.C. communities and allow people to give things they no longer need to other members of the community. This type of group is a great place to survey residents of specific areas to get their input and can be completed with fairly little labor. Opportunity sampling has some ease in completing in that the researchers sample people with convenience of location or willingness to participate and can be done in one location such as a library or public place of worship. Both methods provide the sought-after information on composting in a specific community, and with proper funding and staffing, would provide deeper insights into how the Government of D.C. should increase its engagement in composting.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Composting must be convenient for residents to engage with. The issues like rodents or odor or access to waste services all exemplify that sorting waste is done when it is convenient to the person doing it, and when it is inconvenient, far less people are willing to engage. 85.58% of survey respondents said that convenience was most important in relation to waste management (Zero Waste DC 2024, 10). \u201cAffordability\u201d ranked second at 73.08% and \u201cenvironmental benefit\u201d ranked third. While most people desire to help improve the environment, not everyone can sacrifice certain habits and the convenience of those habits for the sake of benefiting the environment. Therefore, no programming or educational content can be effective without addressing convenience.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Three-bin collection system is the future&nbsp;<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Zero Waste DC Plan action 18 will create standard waste receptacles for trash, recycling, compost, and pet-waste (Zero Waste DC 2024, 12). Action 14\u2014along with requiring waste separation for trash, compost and recycling in the commercial and public sectors\u2014aims to establish a three-bin system where DPW collects compost, trash and recycling from all single-family homes. The goal is to provide this by 2025, however the investments needed are among the highest of any action in the Plan. This is because investments are required for the collection bins, for composting infrastructure and facilities to process the increased amount of organic waste collected, for labor that is needed to collect organics and the trucks needed to transport the waste. The most expensive part of residential waste collection is the transportation, however considering the financial benefits to properly diverting organic waste to composting facilities instead of landfills or incinerators, investing in more trucks and people to collect compost is financially justified (Josephson 2023). Based on the urgent timelines of actions 14 and 18, proper waste sorting is a priority for the District of Columbia.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To ensure that the timelines for action 14 and 18 are met, the District could start by establishing a three-bin system in the Government of D.C. office buildings. The District could also work with the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA), the largest commercial property owner in the District, to implement a three-bin system. D.C. government buildings and GSA-owned and -maintained buildings serve thousands of workers and if that population had the facilities to sort waste properly in their workplace, improvements on waste diversion rates would materialize quickly. Considering the District Government\u2019s desire to bring more government workers back to the office, a three-bin system would benefit waste diversion efforts now and minimize any increased waste generation because of more workers present in Washington office buildings (Wamsley 2024).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another method to implementing a three-bin system could be a public-private partnership, similar to that of San Francisco. The San Francisco Department of Public Works partners with private company Recology to have them collect and process all residential trash, recycling and compost (San Francisco Department of Public Works, n.d.). The company provides the bins as well, and residents pay the company directly for the waste collection each week. Recology has collected San Francisco\u2019s trash since 1921, therefore the relationship between public and private is quite different from what it would take for the District to establish a similar partnership (Recology, n.d.). With private company Compost Crew already providing the food waste collection services under the Curbside Composting Pilot Program, the method of public-private partnership is already established. After completion of the pilot, D.C. would need to invest in scaling up compost collection. The benefits to a public-private partnership versus an entirely publicly owned collection system is contested, where some argue that private waste collection allows for innovation of collection and processing practices as well as efficiency benefits (National Waste and Recycling Association, n.d.). However, research indicated conflicting results where some municipalities benefit from promoting private collection, while others were plagued by corruption or poor waste collection practices (Sandhu, Barton, and Dedekorkut-Howes 2017). Due to the conflicting research, studying the possibility of an expanded public-private partnership for composting is necessary, and insights about this partnership from the Curbside Composting Pilot Program will be valuable upon its completion. Given the success of San Francisco\u2019s partnership, where the city now has an 80% diversion and reduced waste to landfill by half between 2010 and 2020, research should be conducted to assess viability in Washington (San Francisco Environment Department 2022).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Concluding Remarks<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The District of Columbia serves residents of highly variable income levels and the differences between wards or neighborhoods are clear; however, the greatest challenge to making composting more accessible and therefore increase the waste diversion rate is the District\u2019s inability to expand outward. Unlike most cities, Washington, D.C. is confined to the district lines defined by Congress and therefore does not have new land to procure and develop. As it relates to composting, the District cannot increase composting rates and access through major infrastructure projects inside district lines. D.C. must be creative in its solutions and infrastructure projects as it collaborates with the governments of Maryland and Virginia to provide the services that cannot be placed in the District. Further, that inability to expand, in a way, forces the Government of D.C. to focus ever more intently on the space used in D.C. and the communities that occupy it.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Composting is one step in the District\u2019s zero waste aspirations, but it is one that can achieve great benefits outside of zero waste status. Methane emissions would be reduced which is a benefit to surface temperatures. Food insecurity can be improved. Social engagements can increase and with that comes greater civic engagement in the problems facing a community. Overall, improving composting programs and services in the District will not only divert organic waste from landfills, but it will also improve the awareness of residents to the waste they produce and, provided it\u2019s convenient, engage new people in the ways the individual can make the District of Columbia a \u201cgreen city\u201d and an equitable city.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Charles, Dan. 2024. \u201cCurbside composting is working in DC. But don\u2019t know those bags!\u201d <em>Greater Greater Washington, <\/em>January 30, 2024<em>.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/ggwash.org\/view\/92373\/curbside-composting-is-working-in-dc-but-dont-knot-those-bags\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/ggwash.org\/view\/92373\/curbside-composting-is-working-in-dc-but-dont-knot-those-bags<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Clark, Duncan. 2012. \u201cHow long do greenhouse gases stay in the air?\u201d <em>The Guardian<\/em>, January 16, 2012.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/environment\/2012\/jan\/16\/greenhouse-gases-remain-air\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/environment\/2012\/jan\/16\/greenhouse-gases-remain-air<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Compost Cab. n.d.\u201cCompost Cab.\u201d Compost Cab. Accessed April 1, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/compostcab.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/compostcab.com\/<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Compost Crew. n.d.\u201cCompost Crew: Residential.\u201d Compost Crew. Accessed April 2, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/compostcrew.com\/our-services\/residential\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/compostcrew.com\/our-services\/residential\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Department of Buildings. n.d. \u201c2017 District of Columbia Green Construction Code.\u201d Government of the District of Columbia. Accessed March 22, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dob.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/dob\/publication\/attachments\/2017%20DC%20Green%20Construction%20Code.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dob.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/dob\/publication\/attachments\/2017%20DC%20Green%20Construction%20Code.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Department of Parks and Recreation. n.d. \u201cCommunity Compost Cooperative Network.\u201d Accessed March 2, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dpr.dc.gov\/page\/community-compost-cooperative-network\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dpr.dc.gov\/page\/community-compost-cooperative-network<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Department of Parks and Recreation. n.d. \u201cCommunity Gardens.\u201d Accessed March 23, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dpr.dc.gov\/page\/community-gardens\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dpr.dc.gov\/page\/community-gardens<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Department of Public Works. 2025. \u201cDPW Launches Food Waste \u2018Smart Bin\u2019 Program to Expand Composting Access Citywide.\u201d <em>DC Department of Public Works Release<\/em>, February 14, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/release\/dpw-launches-food-waste-%E2%80%98smart-bin%E2%80%99-program-expand-composting-access-citywide\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/release\/dpw-launches-food-waste-%E2%80%98smart-bin%E2%80%99-program-expand-composting-access-citywide<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Department of Public Works. n.d. \u201cYard Waste Collection.\u201d Accessed March 17, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/yard-waste\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/yard-waste<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Government. 2024. \u201cMayor Bowser Launches Pop-Up Permit Program to Activate Vacant Spaces and Bring More People to Downtown DC.\u201d <em>DC Government Release<\/em>, April 22, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dc.gov\/release\/mayor-bowser-launches-pop-permit-program-activate-vacant-spaces-and-bring-more-people\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dc.gov\/release\/mayor-bowser-launches-pop-permit-program-activate-vacant-spaces-and-bring-more-people<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Office of Waste Diversion. 2021. \u201cDesktop Waste Characterization Study.\u201d Zero Waste DC. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/Desktop%20WCS%20Final%20Report%203-10-21.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/Desktop%20WCS%20Final%20Report%203-10-21.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Office of Waste Diversion. n.d. \u201cSolid Waste Diversion Annual Report Calendar Year 2018.\u201d Zero Waste DC. Accessed March 4, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/CY%2018%20Diversion%20Report%20Final%203%2010%2021.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/CY%2018%20Diversion%20Report%20Final%203%2010%2021.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DC Office of Waste Diversion. n.d. \u201cSolid Waste Diversion Annual Report 2019-2022.\u201d Zero Waste DC. Accessed February 22, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/dpw\/page_content\/attachments\/Solid%20Waste%20Diversion%20Report%202019-2022.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dpw.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/dpw\/page_content\/attachments\/Solid%20Waste%20Diversion%20Report%202019-2022.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>District of Columbia Public Library. n.d. \u201cDC Public Library: Plan a Visit.\u201d Accessed April 10, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dclibrary.org\/plan-visit\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.dclibrary.org\/plan-visit<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Protection Agency. 2020. \u201cAgriculture and Aquaculture: Food for Thought.\u201d EPA Southeast New England Program. Last modified January 15, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/snep\/agriculture-and-aquaculture-food-thought#:~:text=A%20single%20cow%20produces%20between,(Our%20World%20in%20Data\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/snep\/agriculture-and-aquaculture-food-thought#:~:text=A%20single%20cow%20produces%20between,(Our%20World%20in%20Data<\/a>).&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Protection Agency. 2020. \u201cComposting Food Waste: Getting a Good Thing Going.\u201d EPA Southeast New England Program. Last modified June 21, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/snep\/composting-food-waste-keeping-good-thing-going\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/snep\/composting-food-waste-keeping-good-thing-going<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Protection Agency. n.d. \u201cImportance of Methane.\u201d EPA Global Methane Initiative. Last updated March 3, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/gmi\/importance-methane#:~:text=Methane%20is%20more%20than%2028,due%20to%20human%2Drelated%20activities\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/gmi\/importance-methane#:~:text=Methane%20is%20more%20than%2028,due%20to%20human%2Drelated%20activities<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Protection Agency. 2023. \u201cQuantifying Methane Emissions from Landfilled Food Waste.\u201d EPA. Effective October 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/system\/files\/documents\/2023-10\/food-waste-landfill-methane-10-8-23-final_508-compliant.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/system\/files\/documents\/2023-10\/food-waste-landfill-methane-10-8-23-final_508-compliant.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fenston, Jacob. 2023. \u201cAfter Delays, D.C. Finally Launches Citywide Curbside Composting Pilot.\u201d <em>DCist<\/em>, September 4, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/dcist.com\/story\/23\/09\/04\/dc-finally-rolling-out-citywide-composting-pilot\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/dcist.com\/story\/23\/09\/04\/dc-finally-rolling-out-citywide-composting-pilot\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Josephson, Amelia. 2023. \u201cThe Economics of Composting.\u201d <em>SmartAsset,<\/em> May 30, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/smartasset.com\/mortgage\/the-economics-of-composting\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/smartasset.com\/mortgage\/the-economics-of-composting<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>McConnell, Bailey and Yesmin Sayin. 2023. \u201cD.C.\u2019s household growth is predominantly driven by singles aged 25 to 34.\u201d<em> D.C. Policy Center, <\/em>October 2, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dcpolicycenter.org\/publications\/household-growth-singles\/#:~:text=This%20growth%20has%20been%20largely,45%20percent%20to%2040%20percent\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.dcpolicycenter.org\/publications\/household-growth-singles\/#:~:text=This%20growth%20has%20been%20largely,45%20percent%20to%2040%20percent<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>National Waste and Recycling Association. n.d. \u201cPrivatization of Waste and Recycling Services.\u201d Last updated January 2019. <a href=\"https:\/\/wasterecycling.org\/privatization-of-waste-and-recycling-services\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/wasterecycling.org\/privatization-of-waste-and-recycling-services\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ober Allen, Julie, Katherine Alaimo, Doris Elam, and Elizabeth Perry. 2008. \u201cGrowing Vegetables and Values: Benefits of Neighborhood-based Community Gardens for Youth Development and Nutrition.\u201d <em>Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition <\/em>3 (4): 418-39. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/19320240802529169\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/19320240802529169<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Open Data DC. n.d. \u201cFood Waste Drop Off.\u201d Open Data DC. Accessed March 10, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/opendata.dc.gov\/datasets\/e7b2cf859b584a899ca3a3fe67095695_59\/explore?location=38.892284%2C-77.016633%2C11.05\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/opendata.dc.gov\/datasets\/e7b2cf859b584a899ca3a3fe67095695_59\/explore?location=38.892284%2C-77.016633%2C11.05<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Raposo, Jacqueline. n.d. \u201cDisabled environmentalists talk eco-ableism in Food Sustainability.\u201d <em>Jacqueline Rapos. <\/em>Accessed April 12, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/jacquelineraposo.com\/select-stories\/eco-ableism-disability-food-sustainability\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/jacquelineraposo.com\/select-stories\/eco-ableism-disability-food-sustainability<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Recology. n.d.&nbsp; \u201cOur History.\u201d Accessed March 15, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.recology.com\/about-us\/our-history\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.recology.com\/about-us\/our-history\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sandhu, Kiran, Paul Barton, and Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes. 2017.&nbsp; \u201cBetween hype and veracity; privatization of municipal solid waste management and its impacts on the informal waste sector.\u201d <em>Waste Management<\/em> 59: 545-56. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0956053X16305670\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S0956053X16305670<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>San Francisco Department of Public Works. n.d. \u201cRecycling and Refuse Collection.\u201d Services.&nbsp; Accessed March 15, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sfpublicworks.org\/services\/recycling-and-refuse-collection#:~:text=We%20work%20non%2Dstop%20to,their%20regularly%20scheduled%20refuse%20pickups\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.sfpublicworks.org\/services\/recycling-and-refuse-collection#:~:text=We%20work%20non%2Dstop%20to,their%20regularly%20scheduled%20refuse%20pickups<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>San Francisco Environment Department. 2022. \u201cSan Francisco Sets North American Record for Recycling &amp; Composting with 80 Percent Diversion Rate.\u201d <em>Government of San Francisco<\/em>, July 22, 2022.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sfenvironment.org\/blog\/san-francisco-sets-north-american-record-recycling-composting-80-percent-diversion-rate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.sfenvironment.org\/blog\/san-francisco-sets-north-american-record-recycling-composting-80-percent-diversion-rate<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>U.S. General Services Administration. n.d. \u201cProperty Management Services in NCR.\u201d GSA Region 11. Accessed April 11, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gsa.gov\/about-us\/gsa-regions\/region-11-national-capital\/products-and-services\/property-management-services\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.gsa.gov\/about-us\/gsa-regions\/region-11-national-capital\/products-and-services\/property-management-services<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Valley, Erin. n.d. \u201cGrasping at Straws: The Ableism of the Straw Ban.<em>\u201d<\/em> <em>Center for Disability Rights<\/em>. Accessed April 4, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/cdrnys.org\/blog\/disability-dialogue\/grasping-at-straws-the-ableism-of-the-straw-ban\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/cdrnys.org\/blog\/disability-dialogue\/grasping-at-straws-the-ableism-of-the-straw-ban\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Varner, Greg. 2024. \u201cGW Partners with D.C.\u2019s Department of Public Works to Collect Organic Waste.\u201d <em>GW Today,<\/em> July 2, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/gwtoday.gwu.edu\/gw-partners-dcs-department-public-works-collect-organic-waste\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/gwtoday.gwu.edu\/gw-partners-dcs-department-public-works-collect-organic-waste<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Veteran Compost DC. n.d. \u201cVeteran Compost DC: From Combat to Compost.\u201d Accessed April 1, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/veterancompostindc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/veterancompostindc.com\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Wamsley, Laurel. 2024. \u201cMayor of Washington, D.C., Pushes for Workers to Return to the Office.\u201d <em>NPR,<\/em> February 12, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2024\/02\/12\/1230987893\/mayor-of-washington-d-c-pushes-for-workers-to-return-to-the-office\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2024\/02\/12\/1230987893\/mayor-of-washington-d-c-pushes-for-workers-to-return-to-the-office<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste DC. n.d. \u201cCompost DC: Food Waste Collection program.\u201d Zero Waste DC. Last accessed February 15, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/curbsidecomposting\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/curbsidecomposting<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste DC. n.d. \u201cFood Waste Drop-Off.\u201d Zero Waste DC. Last access March 10, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/foodwastedropoff\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/foodwastedropoff<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste DC. n.d. \u201cHome Composting Program.\u201d Zero Waste DC. Last accessed January 12, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/homecomposting\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/homecomposting<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste DC. 2024. \u201cZero Waste DC Plan.\u201d Effective February 8, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/page_content\/attachments\/The%20Zero%20Waste%20DC%20Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/zerowaste.dc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dc\/sites\/zerowaste\/page_content\/attachments\/The%20Zero%20Waste%20DC%20Plan.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020. 2020. D.C. Law 23-211 \u00a7 8\u20131031.03a.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020. 2020. D.C. 2020. Law 23-211 \u00a7 8\u20131031.12c. <a href=\"https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zero Waste Omnibus Amendment Act of 2020. 2020. D.C. Law 23-211 \u00a7 8\u20131031.13. <a href=\"https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/code.dccouncil.gov\/us\/dc\/council\/laws\/23-211<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Luke Carignan, American University&nbsp; Cite as: Carignan, Luke. 2025. \u201cPolicy Brief: The Opportunities and Shortcomings of the District of Columbia\u2019s Composting Governance and Stewardship\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908071.&nbsp;&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/policy-brief-the-opportunities-and-shortcomings-of-the-district-of-columbias-composting-governance-and-stewardship\/ &nbsp; Please click\u00a0here\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Purpose&nbsp; The purpose of this policy brief is to [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-439","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/439","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=439"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/439\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=439"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":438,"date":"2025-05-05T20:29:20","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:29:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=438"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:29:20","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:29:20","slug":"food-and-health-disparities-in-american-native-communities-exploring-the-impacts-of-systemic-inequities","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/food-and-health-disparities-in-american-native-communities-exploring-the-impacts-of-systemic-inequities\/","title":{"rendered":"Food and Health Disparities in American Native Communities: Exploring the Impacts of Systemic Inequities\u00a0\u00a0"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Marissa Newbauer, American University&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Newbauer, Marissa. 2025. \u201cFood and Health Disparities in American Native Communities: Exploring the Impacts of Systemic Inequities\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00016. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28908956\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908956<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/food-and-health-disparities-in-american-native-communities-exploring-the-impacts-of-systemic-inequities\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/food-and-health-disparities-in-american-native-communities-exploring-the-impacts-of-systemic-inequities\/<\/a> &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click <a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Food-and-Health-Disparities-in-American-Native-Communities-Exploring-the-Impacts-of-Systemic-Inequities.pdf\">here<\/a> to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Abstract<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Historically, Native American communities were often depicted as having strong connections and traditions when it comes to health and food cultivation. However, it comes as a surprise to many that upon historical analysis, the American Indian\/Alaska Native (AIAN) population is in much poorer health than most of the United States. The U.S. government has consistently stripped Native communities of the ability to grow, produce, or buy culturally significant food products, especially those that provide nutritional value. Tribes throughout the country have become dependent on government-rationed food, which is often ultra-processed and not meant for maintaining a healthy or sustainable diet. This, in turn, has led to a plethora of chronic health issues such as diabetes, heart disease, and cirrhosis among these groups. While the issues are deeply rooted and would be difficult to eliminate, there are several policy and community-based solutions that could improve food sovereignty and further health status among the American Native population.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Introduction&nbsp;<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>As some of the earliest inhabitants of the land that would become the United States of America, Indigenous communities were the backbone of culinary preparation and cultivation on the continent. Food helped shape the traditions and culture of Native tribes that would evolve over centuries. However, external intervention in these tribes led to extremely poor health and well-being outcomes. Since the arrival of European settlers, Native communities have been forced to adapt to unfamiliar food cultivation and consumption methods. This became especially relevant after the United States government\u2019s mass relocation efforts in the 19th century. These circumstances left communities without the access and support needed to fulfill their nutritional needs. Today, the American Native population consistently displays higher rates of death and chronic illness when compared to all other groups in the U.S. (National Indian Council on Aging, n.d.).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Research Question<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This research aims to further investigate the causes of poor health and food sovereignty among Native communities and the ways in which it can be resolved.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Pre-Contact Native Culinary History<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Spanning as far back as the arrival to the North American continent between 12,000 and 15,000 years ago, Indigenous civilizations developed new manners of food cultivation and preparation into their adaptive lifestyles. This led to a wide variety of crops and techniques spreading throughout the Americas and around the world. These resulted in over 60% of the modern diet having roots within the regional tribes across the New World (Park et al. 2016, 171). Early Native Americans were primarily hunters and gatherers, later evolving into thriving agricultural societies. Staple crops within many tribes were corn, beans, and squash, often referred to as the \u201cThree Sisters\u201d due to the intercropping strategies often used to cultivate them (Lewandowski 1987, 77). In addition to a variety of fruits and vegetables, hunting and fishing in the surrounding forests or bodies of water helped to provide a \u201cbalanced and highly palatable diet\u201d for Native tribes. Types of food would vary based on region, with foods like palmetto berries being popular among tribes in Florida, and bison among those in the Great Plains region (Park et al. 2016, 173).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Post-Contact Native Culinary History<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Following the 15th century arrival of European settlers in the Americas, the well-established food systems of Indigenous tribes shifted with the introduction of new animals, crops, and culinary customs. These groups brought with them their own animals such as pigs, goats, cattle, sheep, horses, and plants such as apricots, plums, cherries, melons, apples, grapes and wheat. Some of these elements were integrated into different tribes and came to be essential to daily life and culture. For example, sheep introduced to the Navajo (Din\u00e9) people by Spanish settlers became a large part of the tribe and are still a symbol of wealth and good luck. The newcomers also incorporated many aspects of Native cooking and cultivation into their own, with items such as the presence of Irish potatoes and Italian tomatoes existing post-contact (Frank 2023). This exchange has an initially positive impact on the food culture of Indigenous people throughout the United States. However, westward expansion proved to be the dawn of a downfall in Native American food sovereignty.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, there was a large influx of settlers in new western territories that were the homes of dozens of Native Tribes. Congress later passed the Federal Indian Removal Act of 1830, which forced the relocation of over 100,000 Native Americans from their tribes east of the Mississippi into Oklahoma, \u201ccompletely disrupting traditional Native foodways\u2014and all of their traditional food sources\u201d (Frank 2023). This left thousands of people with no stable food source, in addition to the United States government banning most tribes from hunting, fishing, and in some, planting their own crops on certain reservations (Ford 2021). This resulted in the federal government providing rations to tribes only twice a month. Packages consisted of lard, flour, coffee and sugar and canned meat; a drastic shift from the foods they had been consuming for thousands of years. While it was meant to be a temporary solution, many Native communities ended up becoming dependent on these rations, with some tribes deserting all traditional food acquisition methods. The system, however, was never able to provide enough food or nutrition to American indigenous communities (Frank 2023).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM-1024x576.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-411\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM-1024x576.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM-300x169.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM-768x432.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM-904x508.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.02\u202fPM.png 1064w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 1 (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 2022).<\/em>&nbsp;<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Food Insecurity in Modern Native Tribes<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This problem persists into the 21st century. Native tribes are systematically dependent on government support, and a vast majority of reservations are considered food deserts. Between 2000 and 2010, around 25% of American Indian and Alaska Native groups were \u201cconsistently food insecure\u201d (Maillacheruvu 2022, 3). This figure grew between 2010 and 2020, with the average being as high as double or triple that of white people (Figure 1). Even families receiving support from the government still struggle to easily access the food they are provided with. Approximately 31% of households with assistance from the Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR) did not have access to a vehicle for transportation, and the average distance to pick up food was 16 miles, with almost a quarter or participants having to drive 25 miles or more (Pindus et al. 2016, 85 and 86).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Fig. 1 (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 2022).<\/em>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In addition to an extreme lack of accessibility, Native communities on reservations pay overall higher prices for food than the rest of the United States. For basic foods like milk, bread, and eggs, prices could be as much as 85% higher than the national average (Figure 2). This, however, does not apply to all foods. Some items that are highly processed and considered unhealthy, such as Cheetos, were found to be cheaper for consumers living on reservations when compared to the national prices (First Nations Development Institute 2016, 10). It is evident that Native groups throughout the United States are still not being provided the support they need to maintain sufficient food security. This is in addition to the fact that the AIAN community has \u201cthe highest rate of poverty of any other racial group in the nation\u201d with numbers almost doubling the national average at times (First Nations Development Institute 2013, 1). Alongside a severe shortage of food to begin with, food that is affordable and accessible to individuals and families does not provide adequate nutrition and sustenance to live a healthy life.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"598\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM-1024x598.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-412\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM-1024x598.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM-300x175.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM-768x449.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM-904x528.png 904w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Screenshot-2025-05-05-at-3.32.40\u202fPM.png 1126w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Fig. 2 (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 2018)<\/em>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Links Between Food and Health Disparities<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Since the United States government intervened in American indigenous food cultivation and consumption practices close to 200 years ago, the health and wellbeing of these communities has drastically declined. Rations provided were \u201caimed to prevent starvation rather than provide adequate nutrition,\u201d and the impact is evident. AIAN individuals have a lifespan of 73.0 years, 5.5 years less than that of the average American among all other races. Additionally, they have significantly higher rates in 15 major causes of death among the American population, including diabetes, heart disease, cancer, chronic liver disease<s>,<\/s> and unintentional injuries (Indian Health Service 2019, 2). In 2023, obesity rates for AIAN youth were a staggering 33.8%, a number that is almost 50% higher when compared to all adolescents in the U.S. (Johnson-Jennings et al. 2023, 297). Among several other social determinants of health (SDOH) such as education, housing, and employment status, it is clear that the quality and accessibility of the food consumed by Native people is not to the standard of the rest of the country, and is the root cause of a plethora of health issues that individuals experience from a young age.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Diabetes has proven to be one of the most widespread health outcomes in modern Native tribes, with a type 2 diabetes rate almost triple the national average in white adults. This epidemic in AIAN communities is some of the strongest evidence in proving the destruction of Native health and food sovereignty from the post-contact era. In several Native languages, a word for diabetes did not exist because the disease was so rare among the population prior to the 20th century (Center for Disease Control 2024). The increased prevalence of this condition since European contact and later government intervention is not only proof of the lack of nutritious food options offered on Native reservations, but the lack of proper medical attention as well. Among all populations, many diabetes cases often go undiagnosed, likely leaving more of the American Indigenous population without critical care (Sandefur et al. 1996). These inequities come in addition to areas that are already inadequately served and severely underfunded in healthcare and related fields (American Bar Association 2018). While diabetes is one of the most common health issues in Native communities, it is only one example of the life-threatening consequences that are inflicted upon those whose health and well-being have been neglected by their government.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Protecting Native Food Sovereignty<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Despite the centuries of damage caused by colonizing powers, there remains the possibility of rebuilding Native food sovereignty and restoring the once thriving communities throughout North America. The U.S. Food Sovereignty Alliance outlines six main principles of ensuring food sovereignty. It is an approach that 1) \u201cfocuses on food for people\u201d 2) \u201cvalues food providers\u201d 3) \u201clocalizes food systems\u201d 4) \u201cputs control locally\u201d 5) \u201cbuilds knowledge and skills\u201d and 6) \u201cworks with nature.\u201d (U.S. Food Sovereignty Alliance n.d.). A return to traditional cooking and cultivation methods within indigenous tribes could be one of the best solutions to create healthier and interconnected communities. It is possible that doing this will also have a plethora of less direct social impacts on the wellbeing of individuals, families, and communities overall. However, it is not realistic given the lack of resources and funding to people living on reservations by the U.S. federal government. While complete restoration is feasible, there must be smaller steps taken to re-integrate traditional and\/or culturally significant methods and foods into everyday life.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Developments in food assistance programs like FDPIR have demonstrated an effort to protect food sovereignty in Native communities. In the past 5 years, more traditional Native foods such as bison meat, wild rice, and blue corn meal have been distributed through these programs, but not consistently (DeBruyn 2020). A social ecological model could also be applied to addressing food sovereignty and health inequalities among the AIAN population. This method emphasizes interactions in one\u2019s environment on differing levels (individual, interpersonal, community, and policy\/enforcement) (William and Mary, n.d.). Instead of solutions only proposed at the state or federal level, this model considers the historical and cultural complexities that exist within Native food cultivation and consumption. This could mean implementing \u201ctalking circles\u201d or programs at tribal colleges that aim to educate people on diseases such as diabetes and \u201cprovide support and encouragement for community members\u201d have proven successful in certain Native tribes, but not all, due to variation in cultural values (Companion 2008, 25). Despite the roots of Native health disparities tracing back to the U.S. government and their actions, individualized and community-based education on health and nutrition can result in steady progress towards restoring full food sovereignty to millions of Indigenous people across the country.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Conclusion<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Among the modern American population, Native communities face a plethora of intersecting challenges surrounding food, health, and culture. For centuries, the history and tradition responsible for crops, animals, and resulting food and medicine products have been forcefully erased by colonization and its resulting governing bodies. Though these issues are repeatedly ignored by much of the nation, it does not prevent individuals from dying of preventable diseases or communities struggling to feed themselves. While efforts have been made to increase the amount or accessibility of food assistance to those living on reservations, it is often not enough to solve the overarching issue at hand. Any effective solution to food insecurity and subsequent health problems must account for the historical and cultural value of the foods cultivated and consumed in Native communities. In the 21st century, America\u2019s ability to preserve Native food sovereignty will depend on its commitment to respecting Indigenous groups and repairing the centuries of harm inflicted upon those it has continuously marginalized.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>American Bar Association. 2018. \u201cNative Americans: A Crisis in Health Equity.\u201d&nbsp; August 1, 2018. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.americanbar.org\/groups\/crsj\/publications\/human_rights_magazine_home\/the-state-of-healthcare-in-the-united-states\/native-american-crisis-in-health-equity\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.americanbar.org\/groups\/crsj\/publications\/human_rights_magazine_home\/the-state-of-healthcare-in-the-united-states\/native-american-crisis-in-health-equity\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Center for Disease Control. 2024. \u201cImproving Health in Indian Country.\u201d May 22, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/diabetes\/health-equity\/health-american-indian.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/diabetes\/health-equity\/health-american-indian.html<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2018. \u201cReservation Residents Pay Higher Food Prices Than Other U.S. Consumers\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/charts\/reservation-residents-pay-higher-food-prices-than-other-us-consumers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/charts\/reservation-residents-pay-higher-food-prices-than-other-us-consumers<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2022. \u201cFood Insecurity by Race and Ethnicity Reveals Stark Disparities | Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/charts\/food-insecurity-by-race-and-ethnicity-reveals-stark-disparities-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/charts\/food-insecurity-by-race-and-ethnicity-reveals-stark-disparities-3<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Companion, Mich\u00e8le. 2008. \u201cAn Overview of the State of Native American Health Challenges and Opportunities.\u201d <em>Washington, DC: International Relief and Development<\/em>, 1\u201351.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>DeBruyn, Lemyra, Lynne Fullerton, Dawn Satterfield, and Melinda Frank. 2020. \u201cIntegrating Culture and History to Promote Health and Help Prevent Type 2 Diabetes in American Indian\/Alaska Native Communities: Traditional Foods Have Become a Way to Talk About Health.\u201d <em>Preventing Chronic Disease<\/em> 17. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5888\/pcd17.190213\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5888\/pcd17.190213<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>First Nations Development Institute. 2013. \u201cFood Deserts, Food Insecurity and Poverty in Native Communities.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.firstnations.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/publication-attachments\/8%20Fact%20Sheet%20Food%20Deserts%2C%20Food%20Insecurity%20and%20Poverty%20in%20Native%20Communities%20FNDI.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.firstnations.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/publication-attachments\/8%20Fact%20Sheet%20Food%20Deserts%2C%20Food%20Insecurity%20and%20Poverty%20in%20Native%20Communities%20FNDI.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>First Nations Development Institute. 2016. \u201cIndian Country Food Price Index: Exploring Variation in Food Pricing Across Native Communities | First Nations Development Institute.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.firstnations.org\/publications\/indian-country-food-price-index-exploring-variation-in-food-pricing-across-native-communities\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.firstnations.org\/publications\/indian-country-food-price-index-exploring-variation-in-food-pricing-across-native-communities\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ford, Mark. 2021. \u201cThe Need to Support Native American Food Sovereignty.\u201d <em>Feeding America<\/em>, November 17, 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.feedingamerica.org\/hunger-blog\/native-american-food-sovereignty\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.feedingamerica.org\/hunger-blog\/native-american-food-sovereignty<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Frank, Lois Ellen. 2023. \u201cHow Native American Diets Shifted After European Colonization.\u201d <em>HISTORY,<\/em> November 30, 2023. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.history.com\/news\/native-american-food-shifts\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.history.com\/news\/native-american-food-shifts<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gary D. Sandefur, Ronald R. Rindfuss, and Barney Cohen. 1996. \u201cDiabetes Mellitus in Native Americans: The Problem and Its Implications.\u201d In <em>Changing Numbers, Changing Needs: American Indian Demography and Public Health<\/em>. Washington D.C.: National Academies Press (US). National Library of Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK233089\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK233089\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gurney, Rachel M., Beth Schaefer Caniglia, Tamara L. Mix, and Kristen A. Baum. 2015. \u201cNative American Food Security and Traditional Foods: A Review of the Literature.\u201d <em>Sociology Compass<\/em> 9 (8): 681\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/soc4.12284\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/soc4.12284<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Indian Health Service. 2019. \u201cDisparities.\u201d October 2019. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ihs.gov\/newsroom\/factsheets\/disparities\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.ihs.gov\/newsroom\/factsheets\/disparities\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Johnson-Jennings, Michelle D., Margaret Reid, Luohua Jiang, Kimberly R. Huyser, Angela G. Brega, John F. Steiner, Spero M. Manson, et al. 2023. \u201cAmerican Indian Alaska Native (AIAN) Adolescents and Obesity: The Influence of Social Determinants of Health, Mental Health, and Substance Use.\u201d <em>International Journal of Obesity (2005)<\/em> 47 (4): 297\u2013305. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41366-022-01236-7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41366-022-01236-7<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lewandowski, Stephen. 1987. \u201cDiohe\u2019ko, the Three Sisters in Seneca Life: Implications for a Native Agriculture in the Finger Lakes Region of New York State.\u201d <em>Agriculture and Human Values<\/em> 4 (2\u20133): 76\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF01530644\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF01530644<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maillacheruvu, Sara Usha. 2022. \u201cThe Historical Determinants of Food Insecurity in Native Communities.\u201d <em>Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. <\/em>October 4, 2022. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/research\/food-assistance\/the-historical-determinants-of-food-insecurity-in-native-communities\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.cbpp.org\/research\/food-assistance\/the-historical-determinants-of-food-insecurity-in-native-communities<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>National Indian Council on Aging. n.d. \u201cAmerican Indian Health Disparities.\u201d Accessed January 20, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nicoa.org\/elder-resources\/health-disparities\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.nicoa.org\/elder-resources\/health-disparities\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>National Museum of the American Indian. n.d. \u201cVisit Washington, DC.\u201d&nbsp; Accessed December 5, 2024. <a href=\"https:\/\/americanindian.si.edu\/visit\/reopening\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/americanindian.si.edu\/visit\/reopening<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Park, Sunmin, Nobuko Hongu, and James W. Daily. 2016. \u201cNative American Foods: History, Culture, and Influence on Modern Diets.\u201d <em>Journal of Ethnic Foods<\/em> 3 (3): 171\u201377. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jef.2016.08.001\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jef.2016.08.001<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pindus, Nancy M., Carol Hafford, Diane K. Levy, Jennifer Biess, Jasmine Simington, Carl Hedman, and Jodie Smylie. 2016. \u201cStudy of the Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR): Final Report.\u201d U.S. Department of Agriculture. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fns.usda.gov\/research\/fdpir\/study-fdpir-8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.fns.usda.gov\/research\/fdpir\/study-fdpir-8<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Satterfield, Dawn. 2016. \u201cHealth Promotion and Diabetes Prevention in American Indian and Alaska Native Communities \u2014 Traditional Foods Project, 2008\u20132014.\u201d <em>CDC<\/em> 65 (1): 4-10. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15585\/mmwr.su6501a3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15585\/mmwr.su6501a3<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>U.S. Food Sovereignty Alliance. n.d. \u201cFood Sovereignty | USFSA.\u201d&nbsp; Accessed January 20, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/usfoodsovereigntyalliance.org\/what-is-food-sovereignty\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/usfoodsovereigntyalliance.org\/what-is-food-sovereignty\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Vernon, Rachel V. 2015. \u201cA Native Perspective: Food Is More Than Consumption.\u201d <em>Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development<\/em> 5 (4): 137\u201342. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2015.054.024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5304\/jafscd.2015.054.024<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>William &amp; Mary. n.d. \u201cThe Social Ecological Model.\u201d Accessed January 20, 2025. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wm.edu\/offices\/wellness\/ohp\/about\/sem\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.wm.edu\/offices\/wellness\/ohp\/about\/sem\/<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Marissa Newbauer, American University&nbsp; Cite as: Newbauer, Marissa. 2025. \u201cFood and Health Disparities in American Native Communities: Exploring the Impacts of Systemic Inequities\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28908956.&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/food-and-health-disparities-in-american-native-communities-exploring-the-impacts-of-systemic-inequities\/ &nbsp; Please click here to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Abstract&nbsp; Historically, Native American communities were often depicted [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-438","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/438","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=438"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/438\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=438"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":437,"date":"2025-05-05T20:28:49","date_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:28:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/?page_id=437"},"modified":"2025-05-05T20:28:49","modified_gmt":"2025-05-05T20:28:49","slug":"choux-pastry-a-study-of-challenges-and-techniques-for-successful-preparation","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/current-issue\/choux-pastry-a-study-of-challenges-and-techniques-for-successful-preparation\/","title":{"rendered":"Choux Pastry: A Study of Challenges and Techniques for Successful Preparation\u00a0"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Sarika Rajan, Los Altos High School&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cite as: Rajan, Sarika. 2025. \u201cChoux Pastry: A Study of Challenges and Techniques for Successful Preparation\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00015. <a href=\"https:\/\/aura.american.edu\/account\/articles\/28905257?file=54103136\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28905257<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Web address: <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/choux-pastry-a-study-of-challenges-and-techniques-for-successful-preparation\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/choux-pastry-a-study-of-challenges-and-techniques-for-successful-preparation\/<\/a> &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Please click\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Choux-Pastry-A-Study-of-Challenges-and-Techniques-for-Successful-Preparation.pdf\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2126\/2025\/05\/Choux-Pastry-A-Study-of-Challenges-and-Techniques-for-Successful-Preparation.pdf\">here<\/a>\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Many pastries are difficult to make due to long resting times and intricate decorations. However, even skilled bakers struggle to reach the level of choux, a golden-on-the-outside, hollow-on-the-inside pastry. Beyond its fluffy exterior and delicate fillings is a notoriously difficult process: one that can make or break your dessert. This study will evaluate the challenges that come with making this high risk, high reward pastry, including consistency, precise temperature control, and piping techniques.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>One common mistake when making choux is determining the dough consistency. Water is a cornerstone of this process, as it plays a critical role in hydrating the flour and allowing the starches to gelatinize to create the dough\u2019s structure. The sticky and elastic texture gives the dough the consistency it needs to become golden brown and hollow. Another important role water plays is generating steam. In forming a hollow pastry interior, the steam from the water in the dough will cause the sphere to expand. If the amount of water is too high, the product will be underbaked and soggy (Majeed 2017, 2). If the amount of water is too little, the steam will not expand the dough, and the product will be dense and mushy throughout.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another essential dough component is butter. Butter is crucial to create a smooth, polished dough and gives choux both its iconic texture and flavor. Butter acts as an emulsifier, an ingredient that helps to create a stable synthesis when combined with water, forming a smooth dough to be used in various pastries and desserts. The fat in the butter combines with flour particles to prevent the creation of excessive gluten, which would make the product too stretchy and chewy. This creates a desirably crispy and light texture. The butter also contributes to the tenderness of the pastry by adding a crumblier texture, contrasting the smooth outside.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The third ingredient needed to regulate choux\u2019s consistency is eggs. Eggs bind the pastry together, as they do in many other baked goods. A protein called albumin coagulates when heated to provide the structural basis and shape of the dough. Eggs also play a role in moisture by leavening the dough, trapping steam to create the hollow inside of the choux pastry. Though eggs may seem like a simple add, they must be incorporated slowly over time. Adding them rapidly causes the balance of moisture to change, harming the choux\u2019s hollow interior. Lastly, the dough\u2019s flour base works in conjunction with the water, butter, and eggs to develop the gluten (Ana 2022, 3). The gluten should be produced in moderation to help the dough hold shape while avoiding unnecessary stretchiness. In addition to gluten creation, the flour will gelatinize, thickening the dough. As the choux bakes, the flour will absorb moisture and swell while creating the structure of the pastry. If not fully hydrated, the dough will be uneven and dense with the incorrect texture due to improper gelatinization.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Further, bakers often make mistakes regarding temperature when making choux, for warmth is decisive in many different steps when creating and baking the dough. When making the dough, one must add the eggs in only after the dough cools. If added when the dough is too hot, the eggs will cook, leading to a chunky, scrambled egg-like texture. The eggs will emulsify correctly if added at 50\u00baC. Room temperature eggs are preferred, as cold eggs will not blend smoothly as their proteins set too quickly. Cold eggs will contribute to a grainy texture and uneven dough.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Moderating the dough\u2019s temperature is also essential to making sure the choux pastry is not overworked, resulting in a hard result. If the dough is too warm, it will puff prematurely when placed in the oven, leading to collapse and deflation. Steam may also be released if the dough is not tight enough and cannot contain the steam. Ideally, the dough should be cool and pliable to keep its shape throughout the baking process. A cooled dough will allow the baker to pipe the shape easily and maintain the desired structure.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>When baking, the heat cooks the dough in two distinct phases. First, the initial temperature change causes a shock to the dough. If the dough is too cold, the choux will rise slowly and unevenly. The dough must be around 50\u00baC to maintain its shape and rise at the same time. Warm dough will puff up too fast and cause the pastry to deflate due to an early release of steam (Sapozhnikov 2020, 4). If the dough is not set or is too soft, the hollow center may collapse because the steam is released early. Letting the pastry cool fully will prevent the choux from collapsing due to a release of steam when taken out of the oven. If cooled too quickly, the structure results in an unwanted flat pastry.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Piping is another important yet overlooked way to make sure the choux is executed correctly. When piping the pastry, uneven pressure may cause air pockets and uneven surfaces that lead to misshapen rising when baking. Further, the dough should be piped directly onto the baking sheet with a smooth surface to ensure a uniform shape. If dough is piped too thick, it will not rise as needed and will be dense. Choux also form a \u2018skin\u2019 created before and during baking, acting as the crisp and golden-brown crust. If the piping leads to air bubbles or uneven surfaces, the surface can crack and lead to irregularities when baking in the oven. Using templates and large, smooth piping tips may counter these errors.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In conclusion, while choux pastry can be difficult to make, understanding the science behind its crispy exterior and fluffy, hollow interior can make this beloved dessert easier to create. By regulating the dough\u2019s consistency, watching the temperature throughout the baking process, and meticulously piping the pastry to prevent deflation, any baker may master the art of making the delicate choux pastry.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>References<\/strong>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ana, A., Muktiarni, M., and Maharani, S. 2022. &#8220;Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Choux Pastry Enriched by Salmon, Spinach, and Seaweed.&#8221; Journal of Engineering Science and Technology 17 (5): 3088-3098. <a href=\"https:\/\/jestec.taylors.edu.my\/Vol%2017%20Issue%205%20October%202022\/17_5_6.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/jestec.taylors.edu.my\/Vol%2017%20Issue%205%20October%202022\/17_5_6.pdf<\/a>&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>CAERT. N.d. \u201cChoux Pastry: Preparation and Baking.\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.isbe.net\/CTEDocuments\/FCS-700152.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.isbe.net\/CTEDocuments\/FCS-700152.pdf<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Igor, Pigorev, Khan, Muhammad Rizwan, and Khan, Muhammad Usman. 2017. &#8220;Development of Oyster Mushroom Powder and Its Effects on Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Bakery Products.&#8221; Journal of Microbiology Biotechnology and Food Sciences 6 (5): 1221-1227. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/315757422_Development_of_oyster_mushroom_powder_and_its_effects_on_physicochemical_and_rheological_properties_of_Bakery_products\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/315757422_Development_of_oyster_mushroom_powder_and_its_effects_on_physicochemical_and_rheological_properties_of_Bakery_products<\/a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sapozhnikov, A.N., Kopylova, A.V., Krainov, S.A., and Kveglis, I.V. 2020. &#8220;IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science.&#8221; IOPscience 548. <a href=\"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1755-1315\/548\/8\/082064\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1755-1315\/548\/8\/082064<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Sarika Rajan, Los Altos High School&nbsp; Cite as: Rajan, Sarika. 2025. \u201cChoux Pastry: A Study of Challenges and Techniques for Successful Preparation\u201d. Food-Fueled, 2, e00015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57912\/28905257.&nbsp;&nbsp; Web address: https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/issues\/volume-2\/choux-pastry-a-study-of-challenges-and-techniques-for-successful-preparation\/ &nbsp; Please click\u00a0here\u00a0to download the piece as a PDF. The text is also listed below. Many pastries are difficult to make due to long resting times [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4276,"featured_media":0,"parent":84,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-437","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","content-columns-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/437","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4276"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=437"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/437\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/84"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/foodfueled\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=437"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}]