[{"id":1245,"date":"2021-04-06T12:46:00","date_gmt":"2021-04-06T12:46:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=1245"},"modified":"2021-05-02T22:43:57","modified_gmt":"2021-05-02T22:43:57","slug":"resources","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/resources\/","title":{"rendered":"Resources"},"content":{"rendered":"

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Resources\u00a0<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_3,1_3,1_3″ custom_padding=”43px|||||” custom_margin=”-36px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/maruja-mallo-cropped.jpg” url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/maruja-mallo-biography” use_overlay=”on” overlay_icon_color=”#ffffff” hover_overlay_color=” rgba(165,11,0,0.44)” align=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_all=”20px” border_color_all=”#ffffff” box_shadow_style=”preset1″ box_shadow_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0.34)” custom_padding=”|1px||||” hover_enabled=”1″ border_width_all_last_edited=”off|desktop” box_shadow_color__hover=”#000000″ box_shadow_color__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover=”30px”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#a50b00″ text_font_size=”18px” custom_padding=”|||0px||”]<\/p>\n

A Brief Biography of Maruja Mallo<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/bibliography-icon2.jpg” url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/bibliography” use_overlay=”on” overlay_icon_color=”#ffffff” hover_overlay_color=” rgba(165,11,0,0.44)” align=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_all=”20px” border_color_all=”#ffffff” box_shadow_style=”preset1″ box_shadow_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0.34)” custom_padding=”|1px||||” hover_enabled=”1″ border_width_all_last_edited=”off|desktop” box_shadow_color__hover=”#000000″ box_shadow_color__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover=”30px”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#a50b00″ text_font_size=”18px”]<\/p>\n

Bibliography<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/gold-maruja-mallo-cropped.jpg” url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/list-of-images” use_overlay=”on” overlay_icon_color=”#ffffff” hover_overlay_color=” rgba(165,11,0,0.44)” align=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_all=”20px” border_color_all=”#ffffff” box_shadow_style=”preset1″ box_shadow_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0.34)” custom_padding=”|1px||||” hover_enabled=”1″ border_width_all_last_edited=”off|desktop” box_shadow_color__hover=”#000000″ box_shadow_color__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover_enabled=”on” border_width_all__hover=”30px”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#a50b00″ text_font_size=”18px”]<\/p>\n

List of Images<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00 ” dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_row custom_padding=”16px|||||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#a50b00″ text_font_size=”56px” text_line_height=”2em” header_text_align=”center” custom_margin=”-18px|||||” custom_padding=”0px|||||”] Resources\u00a0 [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_3,1_3,1_3″ custom_padding=”43px|||||” custom_margin=”-36px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/maruja-mallo-cropped.jpg” url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/maruja-mallo-biography” use_overlay=”on” overlay_icon_color=”#ffffff” hover_overlay_color=” rgba(165,11,0,0.44)” align=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_all=”20px” border_color_all=”#ffffff” box_shadow_style=”preset1″ box_shadow_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0.34)” custom_padding=”|1px||||” hover_enabled=”1″ border_width_all_last_edited=”off|desktop” box_shadow_color__hover=”#000000″ […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1245","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1245","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1245"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1245\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1245"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":712,"date":"2021-03-26T00:05:54","date_gmt":"2021-03-26T00:05:54","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=712"},"modified":"2022-03-19T20:56:55","modified_gmt":"2022-03-19T20:56:55","slug":"cosmic-archetypes","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/cosmic-archetypes\/","title":{"rendered":"“Cosmic” Archetypes"},"content":{"rendered":"

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HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 “Cosmic” Archetypes<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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“Cosmic” Archetypes<\/h1>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#e02b20″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”32px|||||”][\/et_pb_divider][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ custom_padding=”42px|||||” custom_margin=”|auto|12px|auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

According to the previously mentioned 1979 interview, Maruja Mallo believed that the \u201carchetypes\u201d that she saw in Brazil resulted from the intermixing of diverse races and that this intermixing made a person look like an \u201castral being.\u201d[1]<\/a> <\/span>With this phrase, she wanted to highlight what she perceived as the extraordinary and quasi-celestial qualities of mixed-race people. This was not the first nor only time in which she, like Renaissance artists and cosmologists, tried to connect, through art, the human sphere, and the immeasurable universe. Indeed, she looked to earlier precedents for inspiration in this regard. For instance, Mallo described painter Joan Mir\u00f3 as \u201castral,\u201d perceiving him as an intuitive, sensitive, and mysterious artist with a particularly rich inner world.[2]<\/a><\/span> She also defined Picasso\u2019s Guernica<\/em> as \u201cthe most immense cosmic<\/em> scream in the boundless space.\u201d For Mallo, Guernica<\/em> represented a great act of human cruelty and, rather than solely representing a specific, local event, explored potentially universal themes.[3]<\/a><\/span> Furthermore, she praised her early friend the painter Alberto S\u00e1nchez for his ability to connect the minute and the infinite, \u201cfrom thyme to atmospherical catastrophes; from esparto to celestial volumes,\u201d and how he converted \u201cwheat bread in astral <\/em>bread.\u201d[4]<\/a><\/span> Even contemporaneous critics and current scholars have employed the word \u201ccosmic\u201d or related terms to talk about Mallo\u2019s art and philosophy. For instance, the critic Melva Luna wrote that the color scheme of Mallo\u2019s 1945 murals for the Los \u00c1ngeles Movie Theatres in Buenos Aires (Fig. 69)<\/span> interpreted the \u201ccosmic <\/em>vitality, which gives energy to the races and unifies the peoples\u201d and that \u201c[t]he five races are here featured in a circular movement paralleled with el c\u00f3smico de rotaci\u00f3n<\/em>.\u201d[5]<\/a> <\/span>For her part, Alejandra Zanetta wrote that, in her Heads<\/em>, \u201cMallo employs the female head as the cosmic symbol of a new inclusive order.\u201d[6]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Indeed, the notion of \u201cThe Cosmic Race,\u201d introduced by the Mexican writer, philosopher, and politician Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos in his eponymous essay La raza c\u00f3smica<\/em>, first published in Barcelona in 1925 (Fig. 70)<\/span>, may have inspired Mallo\u2019s Heads<\/em>. In The Cosmic Race<\/em>, Vasconcelos condemned Darwinist theories and how they were used by the Nazis to establish the supremacy of the \u2018pure Aryan.\u2019 Instead, the central thesis of his book was that the different races of the world tended to merge and would end up fusing into a fifth race.[7]<\/a><\/span> He considered the other four races to be the Black, the Indian, the Mongol, and the White.[8]<\/a><\/span> He also thought that each race had a mission and after they accomplish it, they would disappear. Therefore, according to him, the period of \u201cpure white\u201d domination was ending.[9]<\/span><\/span><\/a> However, although The Cosmic Race<\/em> clearly differed from prevailing theories that proclaimed White supremacy, the text still exhibits many racist prejudices coming from colonial times, especially regarding Indigenous and Black people, who according to Vasconcelos, would be \u201cliberated\u201d of all imperfections once part of his proposed cosmic race.[10]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

Mallo, who was an insatiable reader, likely was exposed to Vasconcelos\u2019s theories, which were disseminated in Latin American cultural circles. For example, the concept of the \u201ccosmic race\u201d is mentioned in one of the Argentinean magazines to which Mallo contributed, Hombre de Am\u00e9rica<\/em>. The August 1943 issue featured a cover illustrated with a reproduction of the artist\u2019s painting Mensaje del Mar<\/em> (Message of the Sea<\/em>, 1937) and the interior included her text \u201cPosici\u00f3n.\u201d Interestingly, in the same issue, Justino Cornejo, an Ecuadorian intellectual, wrote that America seemed to be the synthesis of the universe and that its race was \u201c\u2018the cosmic race\u2019 that was once introduced by Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos.\u201d[11]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Sketches dating from 1957 preserved in Mallo\u2019s archive demonstrate that she was experimenting with different ways of organizing schematic portraits frontally and profile, as the Heads of Women<\/em> are generally presented. Estrella de Diego first pointed to one of these drawings (Fig. 71)<\/span>, which Mallo had annotated with the inscription \u201c5 races\u201d at the top, as a demonstration of how important mathematics and orderliness were in Mallo\u2019s work.[12]<\/a><\/span> Nevertheless, I think we can take her analysis even further if we consider the five letters that appear above each of the five columns. \u201cN, B, R, A, A,\u201d that seem to represent the first initials of the words \u201cNegro,\u201d \u201cBlanco,\u201d \u201cRojo,\u201d \u201cAmarillo,\u201d and \u201cAzul?\u201d [black, white, red, yellow, and blue?], would correspond to those five races conceptualized by Vasconcelos.[13]<\/a><\/span> Here, the \u201cblue\u201d category would be Mallo\u2019s own way of naming the \u201cfifth race,\u201d in line with Vasconcelos\u2019s concept of the \u201ccosmic race.\u201d Furthermore, as part of her archive, some casual annotations made by Mallo in her notebooks reinforce the idea of her reflecting on the concept of the \u201c5 races,\u201d while others suggest that she also probably thought of the idea of race in connection with different continents. However, the measurements that she included in her annotations do not always coincide with the Heads<\/em> that this project has considered as part of the series so it is difficult to assess if she meant to ascribe those names to some of the Heads<\/em> that are currently titled in a different way.<\/p>\n

5 Immortal Names<\/span>
5 Races<\/span>
5 Psychic [characteristics?] \u2013 Knowledge Courage Justice Temperance<\/span>
5 Physical [characterisctics?]\u2013 Health Beauty Wealth\u00a0<\/em>[14]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Portraits<\/strong>
Immortal<\/span>
Races<\/span>
Psychic<\/span>
Physical\u00a0[15]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Heads<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

Oceanic – 56 x 44<\/span>
Black – 56 x 46<\/span>
America – 56 x 55<\/span>
Europe – 56 x 55\u00a0[16]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 69.\u00a0<\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Armon\u00edas Pl\u00e1sticas<\/em><\/strong>. Mural paintings for Los \u00c1ngeles Movie Theatre, right panel, Buenos Aires, 1945 (destroyed at the beggining of the 1980s).<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/la-raza-cosmica-and-jose-vasconcelos.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”8px|||||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-11px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 70.<\/strong> Cover of\u00a0Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos. La raza c\u00f3smica: misi\u00f3n de la raza iberoamericana<\/strong> <\/em>(Barcelona:\u00a0Agencia Mundial de Librer\u00eda, 1925) and portrait of Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos<\/strong>, photographed by\u00a0Harris & Ewing.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 71.<\/strong> Maruja Mallo.\u00a05 RAZAS<\/em>\u00a0[5 races]<\/strong>, c. 1957. Ink and color pencils on paper, 16 x 22 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Fig. 72<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo. COLOR 5= 25 COMB= “RAZ,”\u00a0<\/i><\/b>December 22, 1957. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

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These archival materials show how bound up issues of race and geometrical\/harmonic composition in Mallo\u2019s mind, and they suggest how both interests were inextricably intertwined in the <\/span>Heads<\/em> series. Her diagrams and annotations offer clues to how Mallo understood mankind to be divided into five races and that she associated them with positive ideas such as knowledge, justice, beauty, and health. The idea of immortality also seems to play an important role in her interest in \u201carchetypes,\u201d which transform mere portraits in order to make women appear timeless. In fact, the women featured in the series embody the meaning of the word \u201carchetype\u201d in the Spanish language: “a sovereign and eternal type that serves as example and model to human will and understanding.”<\/span>[17]<\/span><\/a> In this sense, the <\/span>Heads of Women <\/em>series can be read as Mallo\u2019s version of a cosmic<\/em> race. She created racially diverse women\u00a0infused with \u201ccosmic\u201d qualities (geometry, proportions, glamour) that were able to transmit\u00a0a sense of timeless eternal beauty to viewers and to set a precedent in Spanish modern art for the inclusion of racial diversity in painting.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/conclusion” button_text=”Next: Conclusion” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_top=”2px” border_color_top=”#a50b00″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> <\/span>Maruja Mallo. \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d min. 39:55 of 54:28.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a><\/span> \u201cMIR\u00d3: Habitado por seres insospechados es: Astral. En su atm\u00f3sfera m\u00e1gica vibra la inc\u00f3gnita del misterio. En su gracia alada prev\u00e9 … La estructura mec\u00e1nica del \u00e9ter.\u201d Maruja Mallo, \u201cHomenaje a la Revista de Occidente, Mir\u00f3,\u201d Revista de Occidente<\/em> (May 2, 1978). Transcribed in Rodr\u00edguez Calatayud. \u201cArchivo y memoria femenina,\u201d 554.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> <\/span>\u201c[El Guernica] es el grito c\u00f3smico m\u00e1s inconmensurable en el espacio infinito del todo.\u201d Maruja Mallo, \u201cHomenaje a la Revista de Occidente, El Guernica,\u201d Revista de Occidente<\/em>, Madrid, 1981. Transcribed in Rodr\u00edguez Calatayud. \u201cArchivo y memoria femenina,\u201d 559-560.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> <\/span>Maruja Mallo, \u201cHomenaje a la Revista de Occidente, La Escuela de Vallecas,\u201d Revista de Occidente<\/em>, Madrid, 1979. Transcribed in Rodr\u00edguez Calatayud. \u201cArchivo y memoria femenina,\u201d 557.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>My translation. Original text in Spanish: “La dial\u00e9ctica de Maruja Mallo supera el colorido que aqu\u00ed es el efecto y no la causa. El color interpreta sobre todo la vitalidad c\u00f3smica, que da energ\u00eda a las razas y unifica a los pueblos. All\u00ed veremos representadas las m\u00e1s variadas fisonom\u00edas humanas, donde, por ende, abundan las caracter\u00edsticas orientales. Los cuerpos emergen con el verde y azul de las diferentes profundidades oce\u00e1nicas y adquieren el tornasol a expensas del primer elemento sid\u00e9reo del universo. La idea primigenia para la formaci\u00f3n de las razas parte pues del plano oce\u00e1nico; la profundidad abisal vendr\u00eda a ser el formidable \u00fatero donde se realiza la metamorfosis de la medusa, estrella o alga, hasta la sirena y el \u00e1ngel que se humanizan en esta pl\u00e1stica de planos coordenados para desintegrar el mito. Las cinco razas est\u00e1n aqu\u00ed representadas en paralelo movimiento circular con el c\u00f3smico de rotaci\u00f3n. Las cintas que los unen vendr\u00edan a ser v\u00ednculos de fraternidad para el hombre de este siglo.\u201d Melva Luna, 1945. Critique transcribed in P\u00e9rez de Ayala and Rivas, eds., Maruja Mallo<\/em> (Madrid: Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma, 1992): 88.<\/p>\n

The murals for Los \u00c1ngeles Movie Theatres in Buenos Aires, inaugurated in 1945, was one of Mallo\u2019s most successful commissions in Argentina. She designed those big murals, titled Armon\u00edas Pl\u00e1sticas<\/em>\u00a0in three walls of 6,75 x 4m that were seen from the street. Unfortunately, they were destroyed at the beginning of the 1980s. Rodrigo Guti\u00e9rrez Vi\u00f1uelas, \u201cCincuenta a\u00f1os de arte mural en cines y teatros porte\u00f1os (1920-1970). Algunos apuntes,\u201d in La arquitectura de cines en Buenos Aires<\/em>, coordinated by Marta Garc\u00eda Falc\u00f3 and Patricia M\u00e9ndez (Buenos Aires: CEDODAL, 2010): 4 (of accessed copy, different pagination in original article).<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Mallo utiliza una cabeza femenina como s\u00edmbolo c\u00f3smico de un nuevo orden inclusivo.\u201d Zanetta, La subversion enmascarada, <\/em>chapter \u201cRetratos bidimensionales.\u201d<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> J<\/span><\/span>os\u00e9 Vasconcelos, La raza c\u00f3smica: misi\u00f3n de la raza iberoamericana<\/em> (M\u00e9xico, D.F. Espasa Calpe, 1948) [Argentinean edition of 1948, with Vasconcelos’ corrections to the first edition (Barcelona, 1925) and the adding of \u201cPrologue\u201d]: 9.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> <\/span>Vasconcelos, La raza c\u00f3smica, <\/em>16.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> <\/span>Vasconcelos, La raza c\u00f3smica,<\/em> 25.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a> J<\/span>ean-Pierre Tardieu, \u201cEl negro y la \u2018raza c\u00f3smica\u2019 de Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos (1925),\u201d Bolet\u00edn Americanista<\/em>, no. 71 (2015): 160, 168.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Am\u00e9rica puede dar \u2014ya est\u00e1 dando \u2014todo de s\u00ed, porque en lo material y en lo espiritual parece la s\u00edntesis del universo. Productos tiene, los m\u00e1s abundantes y variados; su raza, es la \u201craza c\u00f3smica\u201d de la que habl\u00f3 un d\u00eda Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos, estirpe henchida de promesas.\u201d Justino Cornejo, \u201cPaz y reconstrucci\u00f3n posb\u00e9lica,\u201d Hombre de Am\u00e9rica <\/em>no.21 (August 1943): 13.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a><\/span> Estrella de Diego, \u201cRetratos,\u201d in Maruja Mallo<\/em>, edited by Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala, vol 1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009), 79-81.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a> <\/span>This diagram and two others, from Maruja Mallo\u2019s archive, were first reproduced in pages 81, 204 and 205 in Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala and Fernando Huici, eds. Maruja Mallo<\/em> vol. 1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009).<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original annotations in Spanish: \u201c5 Nombres Inmort. 5 Razas\u00a0 5 Ps\u00edquicos- Saber Valor Justicia Templanza\u00a0 5 F\u00edsicos- Salud Velleza (sic) Riqueza.\u201d Handwritten annotations by Maruja Mallo in her notebook brand \u201cMeridiano\u201d (May 1, 1953). Archivo Maruja Mallo. Escritos y compilaciones de la artista.<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a> <\/span>My translation. Original annotations in Spanish: “Retratos: inmortal, razas, ps\u00edquico, f\u00edsico\u201d (Written as a list). Handwritten annotations by Maruja Mallo in her notebook brand \u201cMeridiano\u201d (May 1, 1953). Archivo Maruja Mallo. Escritos y compilaciones de la artista.<\/p>\n

[16]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original annotations in Spanish: “Cabezas: Oce\u00e1nica 56 x 44, Negra 56 x 46, Am\u00e9rica 56 x 55, Europa 56 x 55\u201d (Written as a list) Notes about her Heads<\/em> in loose sheet. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Escritos y compilaciones de la artista.<\/p>\n

[17]<\/a> <\/span>Diccionario de la Real Academia Espa\u00f1ola,<\/em>\u00a023rd<\/span>\u00a0ed. \u201dArquetipo,\u201d online edition.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”1px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 “Cosmic” Archetypes [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” width_unit=”off” custom_width_percent=”100%” locked=”off”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-712","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/712","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=712"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/712\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=712"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":697,"date":"2021-03-25T23:35:48","date_gmt":"2021-03-25T23:35:48","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=697"},"modified":"2021-05-03T12:03:23","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T12:03:23","slug":"painting-vs-ethnography","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/painting-vs-ethnography\/","title":{"rendered":"Painting vs. Ethnography"},"content":{"rendered":"

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HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a>\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 Painting vs. Ethnography<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Painting vs. Ethnography<\/h1>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#e02b20″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”21px|||||”][\/et_pb_divider][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_padding=”28px|||||”][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ custom_padding=”42px|||||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”||18px|||”]<\/p>\n

One of the most peculiar characteristics of Mallo\u2019s Heads of Women<\/em> is the fact that many of the paintings comprise pairs of frontal and profile views. Such is the case in Head of Woman<\/em> (1941), Head of Black Woman<\/em> (1946), The Human Deer <\/em>(1948), and Polynesia<\/em> (1951). Gold<\/em> (1951) and The Champion\/Head of Blonde Woman<\/em> (1951) may have been conceived as a pair, too, but both heads appear in profile. It is uncertain if Mallo ever did a corresponding profile for Sketch for Head of Woman<\/em> (1940-44), Argentina<\/em> (1952), and the frontal view of Young Black Woman<\/em> (1948).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In Marta Penhos\u2019 discussion of the pairing of frontal-and-profile portraits, she pointed out that this typology witnessed from the 19th century the coalescence of two traditions: Renaissance artists\u2019 desire to represent pictorial reality in a faithful way and the tradition of scientific images.[1]<\/a> <\/span>Since the Renaissance, printed treaties on anatomy were available, including drawings of classifications and typologies, and artists began to study the human body through these kinds of images.[2]<\/a><\/span> Proportions were also given particular attention by art theorists, and also cosmologists and astrologists, as a way to understand how the macrocosm of the universe \u201creveal[ed] its \u2018divinely\u2019 ordered beauty in the microcosm of man.\u201d[3]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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By contrast, from the 18th\u00a0century through the first decades of the 20th\u00a0century, the front-and-profile typology was introduced in other fields, such as philosophy, criminology, and anthropology, to show \u201cdeviations\u201d from established \u201cnorms.\u201d[4]<\/a><\/span> Photography played a fundamental role in this development because, as noted by Allan Sekula, \u201c[it] came to establish and delimit the terrain of the other<\/em>, to define both the generalized<\/em> look\u2014the typology\u2014 and the contingent instance<\/em> of deviance and social pathology.\u201d[5]<\/a><\/span> In particular, the front-and-profile typology in photography helped to establish differences (and hierarchies) in terms of race, social and health conditions.[6]<\/a><\/span> For instance, at the end of the 19th\u00a0century, this typology was used in connection with ideas of criminality, as in Galer\u00eda de ladrones conocidos<\/em> [Gallery of Known Thieves], published by the Buenos Aires Police Department in 1904.\u00a0[7]<\/a>\u00a0(Fig.62)\u00a0<\/span>Marta Penhos noted that a collective agreement signed by the South American police corps in 1905 stated that facial photographs of individuals should be taken in frontal and profile pairs, in plaques of the same size, and from a uniform distance that enabled consistency across all images.<\/span>[8]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In the late 19th<\/span>\u00a0century, some communities of Afro-Brazilians that would later interest Mallo had already captured the attention of \u201cethnographic photographers,\u201d such as the images of women taken by the German-Brazilian photographer Alberto Henschel (1827-1882). He dedicated special attention to the cafuzos<\/em>\u00a0of the Pernambuco region\u00a0(the mixed-race group that Mallo referred to as the epitome of beauty) and presented the women as sensuous, with some garments and ample cleavage. One of his cafuza women became a Brazilian icon and was later reproduced in publications and advertisements (Fig. 63)<\/span>. Mallo\u2019s Head of Black Woman<\/em> (front and profile, 1946) features a hairstyle that bears a visual relationship to women of that ethnic group.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Years later, the anthropologist Edgard Roquette-Pinto (1884-1954), who pursued his research under the auspices of the National Museum of Brazil, continued working in this tradition.[9]<\/a> <\/span>In the words of Sebasti\u00e3o Vanderlei de Souza: \u201cRoquette Pinto was also the first anthropologist of the country to develop a systematic research project about the morphological characteristics of the different \u2018racial types.\u2019\u201d[10]\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/a>At the end of his Notas sobre os typos antropol\u00f3gicos do Brasil<\/em>, Roquette Pinto followed the example of German anthropologist Eugen Fisher by including photographs of diverse Brazilian \u201cracial types\u201d photographed frontally and in profile. For Roquette-Pinto the cafuzos<\/em> represented a very small percentage of the population and therefore he did not include them in any of his major classifications. Nevertheless, he photographed them. (Fig. 64)<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Ironically, Roquette-Pinto was interested in disproving biological understandings of race and demonstrating that mixed-race people were not \u201cdegenerated types\u201d nor \u201cinferior.\u201d In this way, he was annulling the idea that Brazil\u2019s \u201cnational problems were due to the anthropological characteristics of [its] population.\u201d[11]<\/a> <\/span>However, even if he had laudable intentions, he kept employing a practice associated with racist thought (ethnographic photography) that reduced people to their bodies and suggested that these forms could reveal information about their intellect.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Mallo, too, employed this controversial typology. Indeed, discussion of her work cannot avoid the topic of ethnographic photography, especially because the artist herself wanted to explore the different cultures of Latin America. Crucially, Estrella de Diego has pointed out that Mallo\u2019s series Naturalezas Vivas<\/em> seems to represent the notebook of a traveler who felt the desire to depict the underwater wonders that she encountered and to be able to take their images home as souvenirs. She compared what Mallo did in that series with \u201cthe botanical procedures of those large English expeditions of the 18th\u00a0century [which] took note of the strange, the foreign, of everything that everybody, if only narrated, would take as a trick of the imagination.\u201d[12]<\/span><\/span><\/a> I believe that Mallo not only approached her Naturalezas Vivas<\/em> with this \u201cexploratory,\u201d scientific, and documentary impulse but that she also broached her Heads<\/em> in a similar way, with a certain mix of anthropological and artistic curiosity. In this sense, to an extent, she was reproducing the attitude of those colonial explorers whose work \u201cothered\u201d Indigenous populations.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

For instance, when we take a closer look at how the women\u2019s hair is pictured, we see that it is drawn with the same rigor as the shells, corals, and algae that are part of her Naturalezas Vivas<\/em> series (Fig. 65)<\/span>. As we have also discussed in relation to pictorial Brazilian precedents, in the case of some of her Heads<\/em> (Sketch for Head of Woman<\/em> 1940-1944, Young Black Woman <\/em>1948, The<\/em> Human Deer<\/em> 1948, Polynesia<\/em> 1951) Mallo associated women of color with nature, including elements like a flower, leaves, or a circular motif reminiscent of a female deer\u2019s ears in her compositions. In the case of The Human Deer<\/em>, the title itself is telling about the visual connections Mallo drew between Black and mixed-race women and nature.[13]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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In the case of Young Black Woman <\/em>(Fig. 66)<\/span>, the inclusion of two big croton-like leaves next to the subject\u2019s face, and the way in which the profile figure highly contrasts with the background, clearly resembles those botanic illustrations of newly discovered natural specimens done by European and American expeditionaries during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Latin America and the Philippines.[14]<\/a> <\/span>Similarly, in Polynesia<\/em> (1951), the placement of little leaves around the woman\u2019s neck recalls those visible in the photograph of Mo\u00e7a cafuza <\/em>by Alberto Henschel of c. 1869. (Fig. 67)<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In the case of the only Caucasian woman depicted in the series, Head of Woman<\/em> (1941), these kinds of elements are not included, which prompts one to think that Mallo presented white women as more \u201ccivilized\u201d or less connected to nature than women of other races. However, when we compare Head of Woman<\/em> (1941) with Head of Black Woman<\/em> (1946) and Argentina<\/em> (1952), which respectively feature a White woman, a Black woman, and a mixed-race woman with Asian traits, we can appreciate that they exhibit a comparable pictorial treatment and are presented as equally glamorous in terms of their makeup, lighting, and hairstyle. None of them, furthermore, include natural elements. Although the only woman that is most closely depicted in the manner of a botanical illustration is Black, Mallo depicted a white man from her native Galicia in a similar way in order to compare the scale of his head and these natural elements (Fig. 68)<\/span>. Further, the drawing bears a clear compositional similarity to Young Black Woman<\/em> (1948). This, as well as my explanation on Mallo\u2019s interest in relating the geometry of the human body with that of nature (see Part 1)<\/a><\/span>, suggests that Mallo\u2019s ideas about race were quite fluid and complex. Thus, we can neither directly affirm that the woman in this latter painting was intended by Mallo to be seen as more rural, natural, or backward than the rest of her Heads <\/em>just because she is depicted next to two natural elements nor we can disregard some of the artist\u2019s implicit bias about Latin American racial diversity and the connotations of her pictorial decisions that we have commented on.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Furthermore, the fact that Mallo made a series of paintings instead of a photographic series, partially counteracts the relationship between the Heads<\/em> and ethnography and aligns them with the frontal-and-profile typology\u2019s other source\u2014namely, the Renaissance and its artists\u2019 interest in conveying beauty through the use of harmonious proportions. The women\u2019s fashionable makeup and hairstyles distance them from criminal photography, a practice in which glamour was not the professed goal.\u00a0To some extent, Mallo essentialized her subjects for \u201cpositive\u201d ends, instead of for \u201cnegative\u201d ends, as that kind of photography did.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

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Figure 62.<\/strong>\u00a0Minga-Minga, 1904.\u00a0Galer\u00eda de ladrones conocidos<\/em><\/strong>. Centro de Estudios Hist\u00f3rico Policiales \u201cFrancisco Romay,\u201d Polic\u00eda Federal Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1904.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 63.\u00a0<\/strong>Alberto Henschel.\u00a0Portrait-Cafuza<\/em><\/strong>, c.1869.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/Photograph-of-a-Cafuzo-Roquette-Pinto-1929-1.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”27px||16px|||” custom_padding=”3px|||||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”||19px|||” custom_padding=”6px||32px|||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 64<\/strong>.\u00a0Roquette-Pinto. Photograph of a ‘Cafuzo’<\/em><\/strong> (1929).<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 65.<\/strong>\u00a0Press clipping showing Maruja Mallo’s\u00a0Head of Black Woman <\/em><\/strong>(1946) and Vibrant Life<\/em><\/strong> in La Prensa<\/em>, Buenos Aires, November 14, 1948, with the occasion of Mallo’s exhibition at Carstairs Gallery in New York that year.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/\u00a9MarujaMallo_JovenNegra_1948_Galeria-Guillermo-de-Osma-838x1024_and_croton_leave.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_padding=”0px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 66.<\/strong>\u00a0Left<\/strong>: Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Young Black Woman<\/em><\/strong>, 1948.\u00a0Oil on cardboard, 47 x 38.5 cm.\u00a0\u00a9\u00a0Maruja Mallo. Right<\/strong>: Illustration of Codiaeum Irregulare<\/em> , included in E.J. Lowe’s\u00a0Les plantes a feuillage color\u00e9: histoire, description, culture…\u00a0<\/em>(Paris: Rothschild,1867-1870).<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/polynesia_maruja_mallo_1951_and_moca-cafuza-alberto-henschel.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

Figure 67<\/strong>. Left:<\/strong> Maruja Mallo, Polynesia<\/em><\/strong> (profile, 1951). Right:\u00a0<\/span>Alberto Henschel. Mo\u00e7a-Cafuza <\/em><\/strong>(cropped), c.1869.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 68.<\/strong> Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Man and Fish<\/strong>,\u00a0<\/em>Galicia Notebook, 1936. Pencil on paper, 21 x 26 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/cosmic-archetypes” button_text=”Next: %22Cosmic%22 Archetypes” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ admin_label=”Footer” _builder_version=”3.24″ background_size=”initial” background_repeat=”repeat-y” custom_padding=”0px|||||” saved_tabs=”all” locked=”off”][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_top=”2px” border_color_top=”#a50b00″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> <\/span>Marta Noem\u00ed Penhos, \u201cLas im\u00e1genes de frente y de perfil, la ‘verdad’ y la memoria. De los grabados del Beagle (1839) y la fotograf\u00eda antropol\u00f3gica (finales del siglo XIX) a las fotos de identificaci\u00f3n en nuestros d\u00edas,\u201d Memoria y sociedad<\/em> 17, no. 35 (2013): 23.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> <\/span>Marta Noem\u00ed Penhos, \u201cFrente y Perfil. Una indagaci\u00f3n acerca de la fotograf\u00eda en las pr\u00e1cticas antropol\u00f3gicas y criminol\u00f3gicas en Argentina a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX,\u201d in Arte y Antropolog\u00eda en la Argentina<\/em> by Marta Penhos et al. (Buenos Aires: Fundaci\u00f3n Espigas, 2005): 37.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a><\/span> James L. Hutson Jr., \u201cRenaissance Proportion Theory and Cosmology: Gallucci’s Della simmetria<\/em> and D\u00fcrerian Neoplatonism,\u201d Storia dell’arte <\/em>no. 125\/126 (2010): 26.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> <\/span>Penhos, \u201cLas im\u00e1genes de frente y de perfil,\u201d 23.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a><\/span> Allan Sekula, \u201cThe Body and the Archive,\u201d October<\/em> 39 (Winter, 1986): 7.<\/span><\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> <\/span>Penhos, \u201cFrente y Perfil,\u201d 42.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a>\u00a0Diego Galeano, “Travelling Criminals and Transnational Police Cooperation in South America, 1890-1920,” in Voices of Crime: Constructing and Contesting Social Control in Modern Latin America<\/em>, edited by Luz E. Huertas, Bonnie A. Lucero, and Gregory J. Swedberg (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016):<\/span>\u00a023.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>To read more on the relationship of the front-and-profile and the criminal body see Allan Sekula, \u201cThe Body and the Archive,\u201d <\/span>October<\/em> 39 (Winter, 1986): 3-64.<\/span><\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> <\/span>Penhos, \u201cFrente y Perfil,\u201d 32-33.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a><\/span> Sebasti\u00e3o Vanderlei de Souza, \u201cRetratos da na\u00e7\u00e3o, os \u2018tipos antropologicos\u2019 do Brasil nos estudos do Edgard Roquette-Pinto, 1910-1920.\u201d Boletim do Museo Paraense Em\u00edlio Goeldi. Ci\u00eancias Humanas<\/em> 7, no. 3 (2012): 647.<\/span><\/p>\n

[10]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original text in Portuguese: \u201cRoquette Pinto tamb\u00e9m seria o primeiro antrop\u00f3logo do pa\u00eds a desenvolver um sistem\u00e1tico projeto de pesquisa sobre as caracter\u00edsticas morfol\u00f3gicas dos diferentes \u2018tipos raciais.\u2019\u201d Souza, \u201cRetratos da na\u00e7\u00e3o,\u201d 647.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a> <\/span>Souza, \u201cRetratos da na\u00e7\u00e3o,\u201d 665.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a> <\/span>My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Un poco como ejercicio de bot\u00e1nico a la manera de las grandes expediciones inglesas del XVII: dar cuenta de lo extra\u00f1o, de lo extranjero, de aquello que todos, simplemente narrado, tomar\u00edan por una trampa de la imaginaci\u00f3n.\u201d Diego, Maruja Mallo<\/em>,109-110.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a> <\/span>The<\/em> Human Deer<\/em> (front and profile, 1948) was sent to the First Hispano-American Biennale of Art, held in Spain in 1957 and inaugurated by Franco on \u201cThe Day of the Race.\u201d Curiously, although Mallo had been working in Argentina for years, her painting was included in the galleries devoted to Spain. As noted by Francisco Godoy, \u201cwhile in 1951 Franco inaugurated the I First Hispano-American Biennale of Art, the I S\u00e3o Paulo Biennial opened too. While at one side of the Atlantic an internationalism breaking its ties to the [Iberian] peninsula was reclaimed, in the other there was a call to a Hispano-American unity that perpetuated the bonds with the colonial tradition.\u201d My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Mientras en 1951 Franco inauguraba la I Bienal de Arte Hispanoamericano en Madrid, se abr\u00eda tambi\u00e9n la I Bienal de S\u00e3o Paulo. Mientras a un lado del Atl\u00e1ntico se reivindicaba un internacionalismo que romp\u00eda con los lazos directos a la pen\u00ednsula, por el otro se llamaba a una unidad hispanoamericana que perpetuaba los lazos con la tradici\u00f3n colonial.” Francisco Godoy Vega, La exposici\u00f3n como recolonizaci\u00f3n. Exposiciones de arte latinoamericano en el Estado espa\u00f1ol (1989-2010)<\/em> (Badajoz: Fundaci\u00f3n Academia Europea e Iberoamericana de Yuste, 2010), 56, footnote 119. Mallo\u2019s decision to send the Human Deer<\/em> could be seen as a perpetuation of this tradition, as this pair of paintings most frames Blackness as exotic.<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a><\/span> To read more on this kind of botanical expeditions see Daniela Bleichmar, Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions and Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment<\/em>. University of Chicago Press, 2012.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 Painting vs. Ethnography [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” width_unit=”off” custom_width_percent=”100%” locked=”off”][et_pb_column […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-697","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/697","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=697"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/697\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=697"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":687,"date":"2021-03-25T22:31:14","date_gmt":"2021-03-25T22:31:14","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=687"},"modified":"2021-05-03T15:13:39","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T15:13:39","slug":"the-encounter-with-brazilian-diversity","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/the-encounter-with-brazilian-diversity\/","title":{"rendered":"The Encounter with Brazilian Diversity"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”]<\/p>\n

HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 The Encounter with Brazilian Diversity<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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The Encounter with Brazilian Diversity<\/h1>\n

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Although Mallo resided in Buenos Aires, she was an enthusiastic traveler. Among the countries that she visited while in exile, Brazil was the one that had the greatest impact on her Heads of Women<\/em> and its influence is stressed here.<\/em> In fact, Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala affirmed that the artist\u2019s visits to Brazil were a source of inspiration as important to her as was her experience of the Chilean beaches during the 1940s, which she captured in her Naturalezas Vivas<\/em> series.[1]<\/a> <\/span>The artist first traveled to Brazil in February of 1946, with the simple goal of \u201cgoing around\u201d and discovering its local people.[2]<\/span><\/span><\/a> She stayed at the luxurious hotel Copacabana Palace in Rio de Janeiro, where she presented some of the paintings she had brought with her to the press in her own hotel\u2019s apartment.[3]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0(Fig. 54) <\/span>She also experienced the carnivals, went to the top of Corcovado, and visited the bay and the areas of Petr\u00f3polis and Teres\u00f3polis, which are close to Rio de Janeiro.[4]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

Her encounter with Brazilian natural and human diversity also enchanted her, and she was charmed by everything \u201cexotic\u201d or connected to what she considered magic rituals. Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala suggests that the pair of Mallo\u2019s Heads<\/em> called The Human Deer<\/em> (front and profile, 1948) represented a black-Asian performer who modeled for her in Rio de Janeiro and who, according to his memory of a conversation with Mallo, \u201cdanced macumba.\u201d[5]<\/a><\/span> This fact reveals that, to a certain degree, Mallo conventionally related Blackness with dance, music, and ritual.[6]<\/a> <\/span>Nevertheless, neither in the Human Deer <\/em>nor in the rest of Heads<\/em>, did the artist chose to focus on this association as had others before her. One example is Pedro Figari (1861-1938), an Uruguayan artist who Mallo considered to be the best painter in South America,[7]<\/a> <\/span>and who became especially renowned for his paintings of Black people dancing candombes<\/em> in Montevideo. By contrast, in the Human Dee<\/em>r, Mallo concentrated on the woman\u2019s face and did not include her in any folkloric environment that could perpetuate this association. Nevertheless, she perpetuated others, like this woman\u2019s connection to nature, as evidenced by the chosen title and the inclusion of two rounded adornments that give her face a triangular shape reminiscent of that of a female deer\u2019s head.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Ayala\u2019s memory also supports the idea that Mallo worked from real models. Some of her contemporaneous studio sketches feature a Black model and further attest to this theory. In the case of Sketch for a Female Nude<\/em> (1946) the woman is clearly posing, with an arm resting in a kind of stand, while in two other drawings she adopts a more dynamic pose, which could correspond to a kind of dance. However, although Mallo based<\/em> her portraits on real faces, as we addressed elsewhere in this project, she converted them into \u201carchetypes.\u201d Her interest in the beauty of the archetype can be inferred from her own words:<\/p>\n

I believed in the supremacy of the races because I saw more aesthetic in the archetypes I met in Brazil, that were called \u201ccafuzos,\u201d who were the mix of three races: the White, the Black and the Chinese, and when they generate an archetype, as it has the most beautiful features of each archetype, what results is an astral being.[8]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The way Mallo is conceptualizing the expression of \u201csupremacy of races\u201d is quite contradictory here, as she is again equating the word supremacy <\/em>with equality<\/em>. Although she did it in a confusing way and by means of classifying people by their ethnicity, what she was trying to convey\u00a0is that the beauty that she found in the mixed-race people that she encountered in Brazil was for her a way to prove that all races were equally relevant and that no one should be seen as inferior to any other.<\/p>\n

<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

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Figure 54<\/strong>.\u00a0Maruja Mallo interviewed by a journalist of O Jornal<\/em> in her apartment of the Copacabana Palace, Rio de Janeiro, 1946.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 55.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0Maruja Mallo.\u00a0<\/span>The Human Deer<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0(front and profile)\u00a0\u00a9\u00a0Maruja Mallo<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 56<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo, right: Young Nude Black Woman<\/em><\/strong>, 1948. Oil and pencil on cardboard,\u00a049 x 34.5 cm; center: Study for Female Nud<\/strong><\/em>e<\/strong>, 1946. Oil on canvas.\u00a050 x 38.5 cm; left:\u00a0Black Young Woman with Her Back Turned, <\/em><\/strong>1948?<\/em><\/strong>Oil and pencil on cardboard, 53 x 37 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Mallo\u2019s interest in the exotic, the \u201ctype,\u201d and Brazilian diversity fits within a tradition of foreign naturalists and artists travelers who, especially at the end of the 19th<\/span>\u00a0century, explored Brazil\u2019s territories in search both of unique specimens of fauna and flora and new types of men and women who were the product of the perceived extreme miscegenation in the country.[9]<\/span><\/span><\/a> However, at the end of the 19th<\/span>\u00a0century, this idea of the Brazilian mesti\u00e7agem <\/em>began to be interpreted negatively understood by certain local politico-intellectual circles influenced by contemporaneous racial theories claiming that \u201cmixture\u201d implied the decadence of a \u201csuperior race.\u201d[10]<\/a> <\/span>Therefore, those same intellectuals concluded that society needed to be whitened in order to civilize it.[11]<\/a> <\/span>Fortunately, as noted by Eduardo Elena, with World War II, ideas connected to the notion of racial improvement or to the supposed existence of biological hierarchies started to lose support, including among politicians.[12]<\/a><\/span> Transnational social scientists in the 1940s began to feel an especial interest in Brazil because they saw this country as exemplary of racial harmony and thought that it \u201ccould give clues to update a durable worldwide peace.\u201d [13]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

All these debates crystallized in different and nuanced ways in various of Mallo\u2019s Heads<\/em>, especially in those depicting Black or mixed-race women. Just like Mallo\u2019s Naturalezas Vivas <\/em>series has been read as a personal and imaginative subversion of old botanic illustrations and still lives, I believe that her Heads<\/em> of Woman <\/em>can be read as a reinterpretation of the anthropological type through painting. Thus, in the following two sections, I will discuss how Mallo both continued and departed from Brazilian pictorial precedents, and the tradition of ethnographic photography and expeditionary illustrations.<\/p>\n

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<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a><\/span>[1]<\/span><\/a>\u00a0Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala. \u201cCotas de Ascensi\u00f3n\/Puntos de Contemplaci\u00f3n,\u201d in Maruja Mallo<\/em>, edited by Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala vol. 1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009), 105.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> <\/span>\u201cOuvindo Maruja Mallo, no Rio,\u201d O Jornal<\/em> (Section “Revista”) no. 7923, Rio de Janeiro (February 24, 1946): 1.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a><\/span> \u201cOuvindo Maruja Mallo, no Rio,\u201d 1.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a><\/span> Juan Manuel Bonet, \u201cMaruja Mallo: la forma expresa el contenido de una \u00e9poca,\u201d El Pa\u00eds<\/em> (January 30, 1977): n.p, online version.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a><\/span> In some unpublished notes, P\u00e9rez de Ayala also read that Mallo went to the Brazilian jungle to see a macumba ritual together with the director of O Jornal<\/em>. Macumba was the name that a series of syncretic Afro Brazilian religions often related to witchcraft by those who do not participate in the rituals. <\/span>P\u00e9rez de Ayala, \u201cCotas de Ascensi\u00f3n\/Puntos de Contemplaci\u00f3n,\u201d 105.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a><\/span> Jaime Arocha and Nina Friedemann,\u00a0De sol a sol: g\u00e9nesis, transformaci\u00f3n y presencia de los negros en Colombia<\/em> (Bogot\u00e1: Planeta, 1986), 5.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a><\/span> Maruja closely followed Figari\u2019s career and was even aware of the price at which his paintings were sold. Maruja Mallo. Maruja Mallo to Jorge Oteiza<\/em>, December 18, 1952. In Maruja Mallo. Orden y Creaci\u00f3n. \u00d3leos, dibujos bocetos y su Archivo <\/em>(Madrid: Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma, 2017): 63.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original in Spanish: \u201cYo cre\u00eda en la supremac\u00eda de las razas porque ve\u00eda m\u00e1s est\u00e9tica en unos arquetipos que conoc\u00ed en Brasil que le llamaban cafuzos, que eran las mezclas de las tres razas, la blanca, la negra y el chino y que cuando da un arquetipo, como tiene las facciones m\u00e1s bellas de cada arquetipo, pues resulta\u2026 pues\u2026 un ser astral.\u201d Maruja Mallo. \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d min. 39:55 of 54:28.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> <\/span>Carine da Costa Cadilho, \u201cO negro e o mesti\u00e7o na pintura de Candido Portinari da d\u00e9cada de 1930\u201d (Master\u2019s thesis, Centro Federal de Educa\u00e7\u00e3o Tecnol\u00f3gico Celso Suckow da Fonseca, 2015): 19.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a> <\/span>M\u00f3nica Velasco Molina, \u201cPol\u00edticas raciales en Brasil: 1862-1933,\u201d Latinoam\u00e9rica. Revista de Estudios Latinoamericanos <\/em>61 (October 2015): 33.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a><\/span> Cadilho, \u201cO negro e o mesti\u00e7o,\u201d 15.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a> <\/span>Elena, \u201cArgentina in Black and White,\u201d 187.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a><\/span> David Cook-Mart\u00edn and David FitzGerald, \u201cVender el mito de la democracia racial: Selecci\u00f3n \u00e9tnica en las pol\u00edticas migratorias de Brasil desde la Rep\u00fablica hasta el presente,\u201d in Migraciones Transatl\u00e1nticas: Desplazamientos, Etnicidad y Pol\u00edticas<\/em> (UC San Diego, 2015): 46.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

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[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 The Encounter with Brazilian Diversity [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” width_unit=”off” […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-687","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/687","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=687"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/687\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=687"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":672,"date":"2021-03-25T21:47:06","date_gmt":"2021-03-25T21:47:06","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=672"},"modified":"2021-05-03T15:39:23","modified_gmt":"2021-05-03T15:39:23","slug":"revising-brazilian-depictions-of-mixed-race-women","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/revising-brazilian-depictions-of-mixed-race-women\/","title":{"rendered":"Revising Brazilian Depictions of Mixed-Race Women"},"content":{"rendered":"

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HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 Revising Brazilian Depictions of Mixed-Race Women<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Revising Brazilian Depictions of Mixed-Race Women<\/h1>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#e02b20″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”9px|||||”][\/et_pb_divider][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_5,1_5,1_5,1_5,1_5″ custom_margin=”-27px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”1_5″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/head_black_woman_frontal_1946_maruja_mallo.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”|-6px|5px|||” custom_padding=”|0px||||”][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_5″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/polynesia-profile-1948-maruja-mallo-scaled.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_5″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/04-.\u00a9MarujaMallo_JovenNegra_1948_Galeria-Guillermo-de-Osma-838×1024-1.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”|-12px||||” custom_padding=”|1px||||”][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_5″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/the-human-deer-profile-1-1.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_5″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/the-human-deer-frontal-1948-maruja-mallo-1-scaled.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

In Brazil, the first decades of the twentieth century brought accelerated industrialization, the urbanization of Sao Paulo, and the growth of the middle class and urban proletariats.[1]<\/a><\/span> According to Carine da Costa Cadilho, this atmosphere served as fertile ground for the development of modernism in the arts, especially by those artists and intellectuals who had the means to travel and study in Europe for some time. These artists were attracted to everything that represented Brazilian \u201cnational roots,\u201d including its people, colors and landscapes. They depicted Black and mixed-race people as a positive representation of brasilidade<\/em>, but still associated these communities with labor, poverty, and\/or sensuality.[2]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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Mallo was aware of this tradition, for she knew the work of these painters and was familiar with the Brazilian art world, which was especially connected with that of Argentina, especially from the 1940s onwards. According to Rodrigo Guti\u00e9rrez, this cultural exchange was due to Brazilian intellectuals who spread the work of Brazilian artists in Argentinean journals, to Argentinean painters\u2019 visits to Brazil, and their participation in the S\u00e3o Paulo Biennale (which led to the inclusion of Brazilian themes in their work), and to the role of Alfredo Bonino\u2019s galleries, who moved artworks from his Buenos Aires headquarters to Rio de Janeiro and New York.[3]<\/a><\/span> In fact, Maruja Mallo exhibited eight of her Heads<\/em> at Bonino Gallery in Buenos Aires in 1971. We also know that she was particularly aware of what happened at the Biennial of S\u00e3o Paulo of 1951 because she commented on it in a letter to her friend Jorge Oteiza.[4]<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Mallo was not only personally struck by the diversity of people she encountered in Latin America, but, in Brazil, she saw precedent for ways to include and address this diversity in art. Black and mixed-race women were presented in Brazilian modernist painting as central protagonists in Brazil\u2019s history and society instead of marginalized to a peripheral place. However, in many cases, painters also connected the women with primitiveness and sensuality, in a way that tended to debase them.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Tropical<\/em> <\/span>(1917) by Anitta Malfatti<\/span> (1889-1964) is usually regarded as one of the first modern-art Brazilian works centered on the figure of the mixed-race woman (Fig.57).<\/span> It depicts a woman carrying a basket full of tropical fruits against a stereotypical background of banana and palm trees. According to Marcos C\u00e9sar de Senna Hill, Malfatti presented this mixed-race woman as a servile street vendor and contraposed her melancholic attitude with a lowcut neckline that echoed Brazilian female clothing of the beginning of the 19th century, such as that visible in Jean-Baptiste Debret\u2019s lithographies Escravas de diferentes Na\u00e7\u00f5es<\/em>.[5]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

With her iconic A negra <\/em><\/span>(1923), <\/em>Tarsila do Amaral <\/span>(1886-1973) also tried to add elements of brasilidade<\/em> to her painting but, as Hill points out, \u201cthe painter ended up activating an already existing iconographical field related to a well-established anthropological background.\u201d[6]<\/a> <\/span>Indeed, this painting was intended to assert the figure\u2019s status as a nanny or servant, and Kanitra Fletcher reminds us that the use of mask-like features and the contrast between the voluptuousness of the woman\u2019s body and the modernity of her angular background ends up \u201cpoint[ing] toward a view of the black female figure as masked\/invisible, naked\/powerless and unclothed\/uncivilized.\u201d[7] <\/a>(Fig. 58)<\/span><\/p>\n

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For his part, Emiliano di Cavalcanti<\/span> (1897-1976) was particularly well known for his numerous portraits of mixed-race women and for a life-long obsession with the female body. In most of the portraits, the painter emphasized the sensuality of the women he portrayed through ample necklines, as in <\/span>Abigail <\/em>(1940), or exposed breasts in a way profoundly influenced by ideas of the hypersexual Black woman that proliferated during eras of slavery, as in <\/span>Samba <\/em>(1925) or <\/span>Mulatas <\/em>(1927).<\/span>[8]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0(Fig. 59)<\/span> In paintings like\u00a0<\/span>Mulata em Rua Vermelha<\/em> (1960) <\/span>\u00a0women were placed in an urban or brothel-like setting, while in others, like\u00a0Mulata e p\u00e1ssaros <\/em>(1967)<\/span>\u00a0the painter associated Black women with the fecundity of nature and surrounded them with leaves, flowers and\/or birds (Fig.60)<\/span><\/span>. Mallo first met Di Cavalcanti at the beach while she was staying at the Copacabana Palace in Rio de Janeiro.<\/span>[9]<\/a> <\/span>Although we cannot be certain, she might have visited his studio, too, where he painted from real models that have been identified, unlike those who Mallo painted, whose names remain unknown. Around the time Mallo was in Brazil, Di Cavalcanti\u2019s preferred mixed-race model was Zulia. From the 1960s on, he instead focused on model and actress Marina Montini.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Mallo was also aware of the work of the celebrated C\u00e1ndido Portinari <\/span>(1903-1962), who throughout his career focused on painting images of the production of coffee, cacao, and sugar in the Brazilian countryside. When she visited the Ministerio da Educa\u00e7\u00e3o e Saude P\u00fablica in Rio de Janeiro in 1946 Mallo very likely saw his murals, because she then commented to the press that Portinari had been a good choice for the commission of the building decoration.[10]<\/a> <\/span>Portinari also placed mixed-race and Indigenous men and women at the center of his work. For example, Carine da Costa argues that in \u00cdndia e Mulata<\/em> (1934) the mixed-race and Indigenous women featured in the painting are the product of miscegenation with white Brazilians, represented by the expansive landscape around them.[11]<\/a>\u00a0(Fig. 61)<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Departing from her predecessors and contemporaries, Mallo did not depict Brazilian mixed-race women as objects of sexual desire or in the form of conventional stereotypes. Instead of including sensuous necklines and jewelry and emphasizing her subjects\u2019 voluptuousness, she focused exclusively on their heads. She may have intended, with this decision, to subvert the Surrealist male trend of reducing women to erotic body parts or headless bodies, as proposed by Alejandra Zanetta.[12]<\/a><\/span> This author proposed that Mallo chose to depict only the women\u2019s heads in order to highlight the cerebral part of the female sex that had been ignored by men.[13]<\/a><\/span> Indeed, reducing her canvases to a powerful face avoids the most common sexual connotations associated with other paintings of Black and mixed-race women in Brazilian painting. This decision also detached them from the rural and labor environments that had been associated with these communities. Furthermore, she did not mask her subjects or present them unclothed or as \u201cuncivilized,\u201d nor did she include landscapes that referenced labor as Malfatti or Portinari had. However, Mallo does connect African descendants with nature in some of the Heads<\/em>, as I will discuss in the following section. This might signal that Mallo was not totally able to divest herself of the belief that these women were more \u201cexotic\u201d and \u201cconnected to nature\u201d than, for example, the Caucasian one represented in Head of Woman<\/em> (1941). Again, although she aspired to picture women of a variety of races and ethnicities as beautiful and equal, the biases of her time become manifest despite herself.<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

<\/em><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/ana-malfatti-tropical-1917.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-10px|||||” custom_padding=”6px|0px||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 57.\u00a0<\/strong>Anita Malfatti. Tropical<\/em><\/strong>, 1917. Oil on canvas,\u00a0 77 x 102 cm.\u00a0 Collection of the Art Museum of Sao Paulo, Brazil.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/a-negra-1923-tarsila-do-amaral.png” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”||20px|||” custom_padding=”|2px|0px|1px||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-1px|||||” custom_padding=”2px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 58.\u00a0<\/strong>Tarsila do Amaral. A Negra<\/strong><\/em>, 1923. Oil on canvas, 100 x 80 cm.\u00a0Museo de Arte Contempor\u00e2nea de Universidade de\u00a0S\u00e3o Paulo.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/samba_1925_and_mulatas_1927_di_cavalcanti.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-18px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 59.<\/strong> Right:\u00a0Emilio di Cavalcanti, Samba<\/em><\/strong>, 1925 (destroyed in 2012). Oil on canvas,\u00a0175 x 154 cm. Left: Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Mulatas<\/em><\/strong>, 1927. Oil on cardboard,\u00a050 x 39 cm.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/mulata_em_rua_vermelha_1960_and_mulatas_passaros_1967_di_cavalcanti.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”||16px|||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

Figure 60.<\/strong> Right: Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Mulata em Rua Vermelha<\/em><\/strong>, 1960. Oil on canvas, 98 x 79 cm. Left: Emiliano di Cavalcanti,\u00a0Mulata e p\u00e1ssaros<\/strong>, <\/em>1967. Oil on canvas, 81.3 x 61 cm.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/portinari_india_mulata-and-mestizo-man.png” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-11px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 61.<\/strong> C\u00e1ndido Portinari.\u00a0\u00cdndia e Mulata<\/em><\/strong>, 1934. Oil on canvas,\u00a072 x 50 cm.\u00a0Private Collection, Brazil. Left: C\u00e1ndido Portinari. Mesti\u00e7o<\/strong><\/em>, 1934. <\/em>Oil on canvas,\u00a065.5 x 81 cm.\u00a0Pinacoteca\u00a0do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/painting-vs-ethnography” button_text=”Next: Painting vs. Ethnography” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ admin_label=”Footer” _builder_version=”3.24″ background_size=”initial” background_repeat=”repeat-y” custom_padding=”0px|||||” saved_tabs=”all” locked=”off”][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_top=”2px” border_color_top=”#a50b00″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a><\/span> Cadilho, \u201cO negro e o mesti\u00e7o,\u201d 20.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a><\/span> Cadilho, \u201cO negro e o mesti\u00e7o,\u201d 20.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> <\/span>Guti\u00e9rrez Vi\u00f1uelas, \u201cSeoane en el centro,\u201d 22.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> <\/span>Maruja Mallo. Maruja Mallo to Jorge Oteiza<\/em>, December 18, 1952. Letter. In Maruja Mallo. Orden y Creaci\u00f3n, <\/em>63.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a><\/span> Marcos C\u00e9sar de Senna Hill, \u201cQuem s\u00e3o os mulatos? Sua imagem na pintura modernista entre 1916 e 1934\u201d (PhD diss., Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Escola de Belas Artes, 2008): 182-183. Jean-Baptiste Debret\u2019s lithographies Escravas de diferentes Na\u00e7\u00f5es<\/em> appeared in his book Viagem pitoresca e hist\u00f3rica ao Brasil <\/em>(published in three volumnes from 1834 to 1839).<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> <\/span>Marcos C\u00e9sar de Senna Hill, \u201cMulatas\u201d e negras pintadas por brancas: quest\u00f5es de etnia e g\u00eanero presentes na pintura modernista brasileira<\/em> (Belho Horizonte: C\/Arte, 2017): 162.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> <\/span>Kanitra Fletcher, \u201cDamage Control: Black Women’s Visual Resistance in Brazil and Beyond\u201d (Master\u2019s thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, 2011), 19-20.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a><\/span> Fletcher, \u201cDamage Control,\u201d 7-8.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> <\/span>The anecdote regarding this encounter is particularly entertaining. Brazilian writer and reporter Rubem Braga recalled years later how Maruja Mallo and Di Cavalcanti met. According to him, both painters were introduced by phone, so Di Cavalcanti asked her how he was supposed to recognize her among all the bathers at the beach. To that, she answered that thanks to her bathing suit, which was white in the front and red in the back. Braga remembers that Di Cavalcanti told him how he kept repeating in his head Mallo\u2019s phrase for weeks: \u201cwhite in the front, and red in the back!\u201d (original phrase: \u201cblanco por delante y colorado por detr\u00e1s\u201d). Rubem Braga, \u201cRecado de Par\u00eds,\u201d Correio da Manh\u00e1<\/em>, Rio de Janeiro (February 17, 1950): 2.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a><\/span> \u201cOuvindo Maruja Mallo, no Rio,”\u00a0O Jornal<\/em> (Section “Revista”) no. 7923, Rio de Janeiro, February 24, (1946): 1.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a> <\/span>Cadilho, \u201cO negro e o mesti\u00e7o,\u201d 66.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a><\/span> Zanetta also recalls a famous French proverb that says \u201cFemme sans t\u00eate tout en est bon\u201d [All is good in a headless woman]. Zanetta,\u00a0<\/em>\u201cRetratos Bidimensionales,\u201d section 8 in\u00a0La subversion enmascarada, <\/em>n.p.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a><\/span> Zanetta,\u00a0\u201cRetratos Bidimensionales,\u201d section 8 in\u00a0La subversion enmascarada.<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 Revising Brazilian Depictions of Mixed-Race Women [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-672","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/672","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=672"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/672\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=672"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":583,"date":"2021-03-25T13:01:32","date_gmt":"2021-03-25T13:01:32","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=583"},"modified":"2021-05-02T23:02:53","modified_gmt":"2021-05-02T23:02:53","slug":"about-this-project","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/about-this-project\/","title":{"rendered":"About This Project"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false” custom_padding=”|||2px||”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_enable_color=”off” background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” width_unit=”off” custom_width_percent=”100%” locked=”off”][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#757575″ text_font_size=”35px” custom_margin=”65px|||||” custom_padding=”|||8px||”]<\/p>\n

About<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”||||||||” header_font=”Prata||||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#a50b00″ header_font_size=”100px” header_2_font=”|500||on|||||” header_2_font_size=”14px” header_2_letter_spacing=”5px” header_2_line_height=”2em” transform_translate_linked=”off” max_width=”100%” max_width_tablet=”70%” max_width_last_edited=”off|phone” custom_margin=”||7px|||” custom_padding=”||0px|||” header_font_size_tablet=”80px” header_font_size_phone=”50px” header_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone”]<\/p>\n

This Project<\/h1>\n

 <\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#e02b20″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_divider][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/maruja-mallo-heads-of-women-collage2-scaled.jpg” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”55px|||||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=” #a50b00″ custom_margin=”-27px|||||” custom_padding=”|||15px||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 1<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo, Heads of Women<\/em>, c. 1940-1952.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”rgba(224,145,153,0.27)” custom_padding=”||4px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”|||0px||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

This MA capstone project<\/span><\/strong> is devoted to a series of paintings currently known as Cabezas de Mujer<\/em> [Heads of Women]<\/strong><\/span> or Retratos Bidimensionales<\/em> [Bi-dimensional Portraits] by the Spanish artist Maruja Mallo<\/span><\/strong> (1902-1995). Painted from c.1940 to 1952 while Mallo was in exile in Latin America, these paintings of multi-ethnic women\u2019s faces presented frontally or in strict profile are some of the most exciting and lesser-studied paintings of the artist\u2019s career (see figure 1)<\/span><\/strong>.<\/p>\n

I argue here that Mallo participated in contemporary political, social, and racial discussions not through writing, as did other intellectuals at the time, but rather through this series. From the 1920s through the 1950s, a growing number of novelists, anthropologists, sociologists, and politicians in most Latin-American countries explored the relationship between race and national identity in their work. The emergence of Latin American nations as post-colonial states became the frame for their theories, which tried to fight national internal fragmentation and racial inequalities. Just as those discourses revealed the instabilities of racial identity in Latin American, Mallo\u2019s Heads <\/em>present inherent contradictions too. Coming from Spain, a country that was still struggling to define its national character, Mallo attributed the discrimination of Black and Indigenous peoples to the violent legacy of colonialism in Latin America. Furthermore, since she lived mostly in Argentina, which for years dissimulated the presence of its Afro-Argentinian, Indigenous, and Asian minorities, she sought in the series to contest hierarchies inherited from the past that were still very vivid during the first decades of the 20th\u00a0century.<\/p>\n

Influenced by the many experiences that she had in Argentina, Brazil, and beyond, Mallo aspired to introduce diversity into Argentinean and Spanish portraiture. By combining her interests in geometry, art history, and popular culture, she created images of timeless beauty that challenged racist ideas about human difference and posited women of various and mixed ethnicities as equally glamorous and iconic. That said, while she intended to depict the beauty and equality of all races and ethnicities in her Heads<\/em>, certain strategies she employed to make these claims betrayed entrenched understandings of Blackness and Indigeneity in Latin America at the time. For all her interest in making a statement in support of racial inclusion, her strategies ended up essentializing some of her subjects.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

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Despite the quality of Mallo\u2019s art and her recognition in Spain, where she has become the local version of Frida Kahlo and an emblem of the power of women in the arts, she has not yet been incorporated into the global history of art.[1]<\/a><\/span> I would suggest several reasons for this elision. First, those males counterparts who remained in Spain during her exile in Argentina from 1937 to 1965 did everything to erase her from Art History, and it was not until the end of the seventies that her work started to be rescued and valorized by artistic circles in Madrid, which mirrored the increased liberalness of the Spanish society of those days.[2]<\/a><\/span> Second, after Mallo\u2019s return to Spain, contemporaneous columnists chose to focus on her personality, her relationship to previous romantic partners, and the many anecdotes about her life rather than on her art, such that they ended up marginalizing her work. Furthermore, as she was a Spanish artist working in South America, she occupied a liminal space between both cultures. To make things more complicated, almost all of the scholarship on her is written in Spanish and only some articles have been published in prominent English-language journals or as chapters in books \u2014but mostly in the context of Hispanic studies publications, not in art history ones.[3]<\/a><\/span> Indeed, this project stands as the first virtual project devoted to an in-depth analysis of a selection of Mallo\u2019s art, making it available to a global audience.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/maruja-mallo-in-her-studio-buenos-aires.jpg” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

Figure 2<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo in her\u00a0house-studio in Buenos Aires\u00a0in 1944. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row custom_padding=”22px|||||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-7px|||||”]Some of the scholars who have previously done serious research about Mallo and have developed interesting studies of her life and work are Consuelo de la G\u00e1ndara, Jos\u00e9 Luis Ferris, Estrella de Diego, Fernando Huici March, Mar\u00eda Escribano, Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala, Jos\u00e9 Luis Ferris, Shirley Mangini, and Amalia Mel\u00e9ndez Taboa. From them, I borrow most of the biographical details included in this project.[4]<\/a> <\/span>Among these publications, Estrella de Diego\u2019s 2008 monograph on Mallo was one of the most serious attempts to grapple with the nature of the artist\u2019s work. De Diego demonstrated that the artist was not a surrealist.[5]<\/a><\/span> She received this designation after her return to Spain because everybody saw her as a \u201csurrealist woman,\u201d meaning extravagant and strange. By contrast, De Diego resisted the impulse to categorize Mallo and stressed the particular realism that connects all her work and the quasi-scientific view with which she approached her paintings. Her argument is especially effective because she provided evidence about those formal qualities of Mallo\u2019s art that are very far from being surrealist, such as her interest in geometry, harmony, and control, as well as evidence about the complex role of women with the Surrealist movement in Spain, which should further dissuade scholars from hastily applying this label to this artist.<\/p>\n

In light of the state of the literature on Maruja Mallo, which has amply reviewed the artist\u2019s biography and documented her entire oeuvre, it is the goal of this project to focus solely on, interpret, and historicize her Heads of Women<\/em>. In this way, I will compensate for the minimal rigorous research on individual artworks by Mallo and the excessive attention paid to her personality at the expense of her art. I do so by means of reconstructing the complexity of her ideas and presenting her work as the result of a nuanced artistic process, carefully selected sources, and novel approaches to them. Her very personal process entailed drawing from multiple references and allowed her to introduce race and gender-related themes into the sphere of Spanish modern art.[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/about-heads-of-women” button_text=”Next: About Heads of Women” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(224,145,153,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ admin_label=”Footer” _builder_version=”3.24″ background_size=”initial” background_repeat=”repeat-y” custom_padding=”0px|||||” saved_tabs=”all” locked=”off”][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_color_all=”rgba(229,0,42,0.62)” border_width_top=”2px” border_color_top=”#a50b00″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ link_text_color=”#a50b00″]<\/p>\n

[1]<\/span><\/a> During her life, Mallo\u2019s work generated much attention, in both the Spanish press and the different places where she exhibited (Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, New York\u2026). She kept records of the press clippings talking about her and the list is impressive. Even though she never proclaimed herself as such, she has become and an emblem of feminism and female freedom.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/span><\/a> For instance, in 1979, she presented an anthological exhibition at the Galer\u00eda Ru\u00edz Castillo in Madrid. Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala and Francisco Rivas, eds., Maruja Mallo<\/em> (Madrid: Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma, 1992): 28.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/span><\/a> Some relevant publications about Mallo\u2019s art in English are Candelas Gala, \u201cCreative Measurements: Plastic-Dynamic Development in Maruja Mallo\u2019s Naturalezas Vivas,<\/em>\u201d chap.3 in Creative Cognition and the Cultural Panorama of Twentieth-Century Spain,<\/em>\u00a069-96. New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015; Shirley Mangini, \u201cFrom the Atlantic to the Pacific: Maruja Mallo in Exile.\u201d Studies in 20th\u00a0and 21st\u00a0Century Literature<\/em> 30, no. 1 (2006): 85-106; \u201cCinematic Art, Maruja Mallo and Modern Visual Culture.\u201d Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies<\/em> 12, no. 4 (December 2011): 463-487; Josefina Gonz\u00e1lez Cubero, \u201cPhotographs of Theatre that Could Not Be. Maruja Mallo\u2019s Stage Designs.\u201d Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, Escuela de Arquitectura (November 2014): 203-220; Roberta Ann Quance, \u201cMaruja Mallo and the Interest in Children\u2019s Art during the Second Spanish Republic,\u201d Bulletin of Hispanic Studies<\/em> 90, no.7 (2013): 803-818; Eamon McCarthy, \u201cImages of the mujer moderna<\/em> in the Works of Maruja Mallo and Norah Borges,\u201d Bulletin of Spanish Studies<\/em> 95, no.5 (2018): 455-478; Anna M. Wieck, “Maruja Mallo\u2019s Verbenas<\/em> and Anti-Landscapes,” chap. 2 in\u00a0Painting, Popular Culture, Putrefaction: Depicting Tradition on the Eve of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)<\/em>, 53-99. <\/em>PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2016.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/span><\/a> Consuelo de la G\u00e1ndara, Maruja Mallo<\/em>. Madrid: Servicios de Publicaciones del Ministerio de Educaci\u00f3n y Ciencia, 1978; Jos\u00e9 Luis Ferris, Maruja Mallo: la gran transgresora del 27<\/em>. Barcelona: Temas de hoy, 2004; Estrella de Diego, Maruja Mallo<\/em>. Madrid: Fundaci\u00f3n Mapfre, 2008; Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala, eds., Maruja Mallo<\/em>. Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009 (vol. 1 includes texts by editors, and by Mar\u00eda Escribano and Estrella de Diego); Shirley Mangini, Maruja Mallo and the Spanish Avant-Garde<\/em>. Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2016.<\/p>\n

In addition to these authors, I must mention gallerist Guillermo de Osma as an expert on the art of Maruja Mallo. His art gallery in Madrid has been a pioneer in organizing three exhibitions on Maruja Mallo\u2019s art (in 1992, 2002, and 2017). Osma also acquired her archive, which was later transferred to the Archivo Lafuente (Santander, Spain) and he has promoted the catalog raissonn\u00e9 <\/em>of Maruja Mallo’s paintings that is forthcoming from Editorial Nerea. The research group working in this project comprises Antonio Bonet Correa, Estrella de Diego, Mar\u00eda Dolores Jim\u00e9nez-Blanco, Fernando Huici, and Jos\u00e9 Carlos Valle.<\/p>\n

Beyond curatorship and academia, it is worth mentioning the documentary on Mallo titled \u201cMitad \u00e1ngel, mitad marisco\u201d [Half Angel, Half Seafood<\/em>] produced by filmmaker Ant\u00f3n Reixa in 2010.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/span><\/a> Estrella de Diego, Maruja Mallo<\/em>. Madrid: Fundaci\u00f3n Mapfre, 2008.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

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Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

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HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 The Politics of Race in Argentina<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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The Politics of Race in Argentina<\/h1>\n

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Figure 48<\/strong>. Eva Per\u00f3n and a group of miners during the celebration of her birthday on May 7, 1951.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Mallo started to paint multi-racial women around 1940, when she had been living in Buenos Aires for around three years, and painted her last such work in 1952. Throughout that time, Argentina was a country that proudly defined itself as \u201cWhite,\u201d in opposition to other countries with more obviously Indigenous and\/or African populations, like Brazil. Moreover, Argentinians traditionally reverted to \u201cclass\u201d rather than \u201crace\u201d to explain social inequalities.[1]<\/a> <\/span>Of course, these claims that \u201cclass\u201d vs. \u201crace\u201d were the defining features of a culture are in and of themselves implicitly racialized and speak to a kind of \u201ccolor blindness\u201d that often only affirms White supremacy. It is true that White people predominated in Argentina because of a series of epidemics in the nineteenth century, participation in the wars of independence, and miscegenation with European immigrants significantly decreased the number of people visibly of African descent in the country.[2]<\/a> <\/span>However, the existing population was further marginalized in popular discourse. Lea Geler and Mar\u00eda de Lourdes Ghidoli suggest that, by 1930, the Afro-Argentinean population had been marginalized from mainstream Argentinean society using various strategies, including associating them with a nostalgic past, and caricaturing and exoticizing their bodies.[3]<\/a><\/span> From his part, Ezequiel Adamovsky noted that both Afro-Argentinean and Indigenous communities in Argentina suffered for decades the consequences of a society that, instead of directly excluding them from the nation, \u201cforced them to \u2018dissimulate\u2019 any mark of their diverse origin as a condition to participating as citizens in the life of the nation.\u201d[4]<\/a><\/span> Only in some instances, and in a purely anecdotical way, specific members of the Afro-Argentinean community were particularly lauded. For instance, that was the case of Argentinean actress and singer Rita Luc\u00eda Montero (1928-2013), who was born in a family descendent from enslaved Africans and was exalted as one of the most important performers of the golden age of Argentinean Cinema, participating in numerous films since the 1940s.[5] (Fig.49)<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

When she first arrived in Latin America, Mallo largely associated with the white mainstream. During her first years in Argentina, she spent most of her time in Buenos Aires, but in 1939 she also started to spend summers on the coast of Chile (where she stayed in Vi\u00f1a del Mar and Valpara\u00edso), or in Uruguay (in Punta del Este and Punta Ballena).[6]<\/a> <\/span>Both in Buenos Aires and at her Chilean and Uruguayan destinations she was normally surrounded by women belonging to a selective social circle which included intellectuals, actresses, and wives of elite male friends.[7]<\/a>\u00a0(Fig.50)\u00a0<\/span>According to photos of events that Mallo attended, these women aligned with the kind of Caucasian archetype featured in Head of Woman <\/em>(1941).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Around the same time, Mallo also began painting a Head<\/em> that she dated 1940-1944, but that was apparently unfinished according to the title by which is known: Estudio para cabeza de mujer<\/em> [Sketch for Head of Woman]. It pictures a woman with her hair styled in beautiful braids and adorned by a red flower. The painting includes an annotation that states, \u201cPunta del Este el 29 de febrero de 1940,\u201d so she likely did it while staying in the Uruguayan city popular among wealthy Argentineans as a health resort. Known as the \u201cSt. Tropez of South America,\u201d it is still a city marked by manifest contrasts between the rich and the poor. In Sketch for Head of Woman\u00a0<\/em>(Fig. 51)<\/span>, Mallo included the following two lists of curious and seemingly contradictory terms:<\/p>\n

1940\u00a0 \u00a0Convenci\u00f3n?\u00a0 \u00a0Rampl\u00f3n\u00a0 \u00a0 Pobreza\u00a0 \u00a0Ignorancia\u00a0 \u00a0Tosco<\/span><\/p>\n

1944\u00a0 \u00a0Mito\u00a0 \u00a0Belleza\u00a0 \u00a0Riqueza\u00a0 \u00a0Cultura s. XX\u00a0 \u00a0Aristocracia<\/span><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

These annotations, made in connection to the portrait but probably also to the place where it was made, reveal that Mallo was aware of contemporaneous social tensions and issues of class in the Argentine-Uruguayan context. She conceptualized her Sketch for Head of Woman<\/em> and the series that followed during a period in which social, class and racial tensions intensified, especially in Buenos Aires. At this time, the migration of workers from the interior of the country increased substantially. This mass of workers, which was multiethnic (including many people of European descent but also many who were mixed-race), increased anxiety among Argentinean elites, and their racism was manifest in the derogative name they used to refer to this population: \u201ccabecitas negras\u201d (black little heads). However, the coming of the Peronist regime in 1946, [8]<\/a><\/span> which marked a decisive turning point in Argentinean history, occasioned new reforms in order to valorize the native communities that were living in rural areas around the country.[9]<\/a><\/span> In Argentina, there have always been communities of Mapuches, Tobas, Diaguitas, Aymaras, Guaran\u00edes, Kollas, and many other groups with Indigenous roots. However, the Censo Ind\u00edgena Nacional [Indigenous National Census] of 1966-1968 was the first official attempt to quantify as well as locate Argentinean Indigenous populations. For centuries, this big sector of society had been pushed aside and suffered from discrimination. As Per\u00f3n\u2019s regime especially supported the so-called \u201ccabecitas negras,\u201d being a Peronist follower started to be associated with being \u201cBlack,\u201d irrespective of one\u2019s skin tone.[10]<\/a><\/span> According to Ezequiel Adamovsky, Peronist leaders were ambivalent about the myth of a White-European Argentina, but their political discourse clearly gave the traditional \u2018criollo\u2019 a predominant role in the construction of the nation in ways that allowed mixed-race people, Indigenous people, and African-Americans to be more visible and thus challenge the apparent white homogeneity and supremacy of the country.[11]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The ambiguity of the Peronist position regarding race was exemplified by the curious case of the sculpture of Eva Per\u00f3n that the diplomats of the Argentinean embassy of Paris commissioned from Sesostris Vitullo in 1953 (Fig. 52)<\/span>. The artist created a sculpture in stone with clear mixed-race features and depicted Eva as \u201cthe liberator of the oppressed races of America.\u201d[12]<\/a><\/span> It was supposed to be exhibited in the Museum of Modern Art of Paris but, when the diplomats saw it, they tensely reacted and decided to move it to a basement, where it was hidden until 1973 when Orlando Barone published the outcome of his research about it in the Argentinean magazine Crisis. <\/em>In his article, Barone\u00a0asked for the recovery and public presentation of the sculpture.[13]<\/a> <\/span>This anecdotal incident is actually quite illustrative of how unprepared were Mallo\u2019s contemporaries for an open discussion on both the political role of women and racial minorities and how the combination of the power of both could have been perceived as a threat.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

I have here discussed how the Peronist regime allowed for the growing legitimacy of multiple identities within Argentina as a way to highlight the visibility of issues of race at the time. This socio-political context likely initiated Mallo\u2019s interest in diversifying Argentinean notions of female beauty by means of creating a catalog of racial types. It does not seem to be a pure coincidence that the last painting of the series, from 1952, depicts a woman who seems to have features indicative of multiple races and whose title is Argentina <\/em>(Fig.53)<\/span>. Much on the contrary, this clearly indicates Mallo\u2019s intentions: that she supported the diversity of the population in Argentina. Although the artist claimed to have hated Juan Peron\u2019s regime, which she defined as a \u201ccontubernio\u201d [plot, conspiracy],[14]<\/a><\/span> and criticized Eva Per\u00f3n,[15]<\/a><\/span> her series of Heads of Women<\/em> ended up paradoxically aligning with the Peronist desire to diversify Argentinean society and enlarge the number of cultural and ethnic sources in which the nation was rooted.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

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Figure 49<\/strong>. Actress and singer\u00a0Rita Montero<\/strong> and her father (Severo Miguel Montero) with mother and daughter (Mar\u00eda Magdalena “Magda”) from a neighboring family. Unidentified photographer, c. 1936.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 50.<\/strong>\u00a0Maruja Mallo (second on the right) and friends during a summer in Punta del Este, Uruguay.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/03\/detail-sketch-of-woman-maruja-mallo-photo-maria-cimadevilla.jpg” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-15px|||||” custom_padding=”6px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 51<\/strong>. Detail from Maruja Mallo’s Sketch for a Head of Woman<\/em><\/strong>, 1940-1944. Photo: Mar\u00eda Cimadevilla.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/05\/two-views-of-eva-peron-arquetipo-simbolico-sesostris-vitullo-1952.png” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”|||1px||” custom_padding=”|||1px||” show_in_lightbox=”on”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-11px|||||” custom_padding=”4px||0px|||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 52<\/strong>. Sesostris Vitullo. Eva Per\u00f3n, arquetipo s\u00edmbolo<\/strong><\/em> [Eva Per\u00f3n, Archetype Symbol]\u00a01952.\u00a0Stone of Gard, h: 1.12 m.\u00a0Collection Universidad Torcuato Di Tella.<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/02\/argentina_1952-maruja_mallo.jpg” show_in_lightbox=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_padding=”|0px||0px||”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-14px||52px|||” custom_padding=”3px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 53<\/strong>.\u00a0Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Argentina<\/em><\/strong>, 1952.\u00a0Oil on canvas, 49 x 40.7 cm<\/span>
\u00a9\u00a0Maruja Mallo<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/the-encounter-with-brazilian-diversity” button_text=”Next: The Encounter with Brazilian Diversity” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ admin_label=”Footer” _builder_version=”3.24″ background_size=”initial” background_repeat=”repeat-y” custom_padding=”0px|||||” saved_tabs=”all” locked=”off”][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_color_all=”#a50b00″ border_width_top=”2px”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

[1]<\/a><\/span> Alejandro Frigerio, \u201c\u2019Negros\u2019 y \u2018Blancos\u2019 en Buenos Aires: repensando nuestras categor\u00edas raciales,\u201d <\/span>Temas de Patrimonio Cultural <\/em>no. 16. N\u00famero dedicado a <\/span>Buenos Aires Negra: Identidad y cultura<\/em>. Comisi\u00f3n para la Preservaci\u00f3n del Patrimonio Hist\u00f3rico Cultural de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (2006): 17.<\/span><\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> <\/span>Jean-Ars\u00e8ne Yao, \u201cLa prensa afroporte\u00f1a y el pensamiento afroargentino a finales del siglo XIX,\u201d Historia y Comunicaci\u00f3n Social <\/em>20, no.1 (2015): 139.<\/span><\/p>\n

[3]<\/a><\/span> Lea Geler and Mar\u00eda de Lourdes Ghidoli, \u201cFalucho, paradojas de un h\u00e9roe negro en una naci\u00f3n blanca. Raza, clase y g\u00e9nero en Argentina (1875-1930),\u201d Avances del Cesor<\/em> 16, no. 20 (June 2019): 22.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> <\/span>\u201cEn su funcionamiento pr\u00e1ctico, el mito del crisol de razas no exclu\u00eda de la pertenencia a la naci\u00f3n a las personas de otros colores de piel o extracciones \u00e9tnicas. M\u00e1s bien, las forzaba a \u201cdisimular\u201d cualquier marca de su origen diverso, como condici\u00f3n para participar como ciudadano en la vida nacional.\u201d Adamovsky, \u201cEl color de la naci\u00f3n argentina,\u201d 343.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a><\/span> To read more about the photography of Afro Argentineans and the Rita Montero\u2019s photography collection see Norberto Pablo Cirio, \u201cAportes para el estudio de la fotograf\u00eda de afroargentinos: la colecci\u00f3n Rita Luc\u00eda Montero,\u201d Identidades<\/em> 8 (2016): 50-60.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> <\/span>Rivas, \u201cMaruja Mallo, pintora del m\u00e1s all\u00e1,\u201d 24.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> <\/span>In the summer of 1940, Mallo told her friend Alfonso Reyes that Victoria Ocampo invited her to Mar de Plata, where she met “la m\u00e1s alta ‘aristocracia'” [the highest “aristocracy”] (Quotation marks in \u201caristocracia\u201d by Mallo). Maruja Mallo, Maruja Mallo to Alfonso Reyes<\/em>, August 17, 1940. Letter. Transcribed in M\u00aa Antonia P\u00e9rez Rodr\u00edguez, \u201cCorrespondencia Maruja Mallo-Alfonso Reyes (1938-1945) Edici\u00f3n anotada,\u201d Madrygal, Revista de Estudios Gallegos<\/em> 16 (2014): 90.<\/p>\n

In 1941, Mallo wrote that she used to receive the aristocracy of Buenos Aires wearing a hat. Maruja Mallo. Maruja Mallo to Alfonso Reyes<\/em>, July 14, 1941. Letter. Transcribed in P\u00e9rez Rodr\u00edguez, \u201cCorrespondencia Maruja Mallo-Alfonso Reyes,\u201d 91.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> <\/span>The first Peronism (1946-1955), led by Juan Domingo Per\u00f3n and his wife Eva Duarte de Per\u00f3n\u2014who were not associated with the left or the right, but instead received support from a variety of groups\u2014 was especially preoccupied with the vulnerable situation of Indigenous communities and tried to implement more inclusive political reforms to contribute to their welfare. But, as claimed by Enrique Mases, Peronist actions did not only have an impact on these populations\u2019 material conditions, they also had an impact on the national and cultural identity of Argentina as a whole. What happened with Peronism is that it opposed and at the same time integrated the culture of popular sectors with the aim of achieving a more plural country. <\/span>Enrique Mases, \u201cLa construcci\u00f3n interesada de la memoria hist\u00f3rica: el mito de la naci\u00f3n blanca y la invisibilidad de los pueblos originarios,\u201d Pilquen <\/em>(Secci\u00f3n Ciencias Sociales, Dossier Bicentenario) no. 12 (2010): 8.<\/p>\n

However, Mases and other authors have remarked that this process was not easy and generated tensions and contradictions. Both Juan and Eva Per\u00f3n became idols, especially for the working class, but they also had many detractors due to their almost dictatorial attitudes, which had negative consequences for many repressed intellectuals, including Mallo\u2019s friends. As pointed out by Rodrigo Guti\u00e9rrez, those in exile in Argentina saw Juan D. Per\u00f3n as a reincarnation of European fascism. Rodrigo Guti\u00e9rrez Vi\u00f1uelas, \u201cSeoane en el centro. Algunos itinerarios por el arte en Buenos Aires (1936-1963),\u201d in Buenos Aires. Escenarios de Luis Seoane<\/em> (La Coru\u00f1a: Fundaci\u00f3n Luis Seoane, 2007): 14-15.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> <\/span>Sabrina Rosas, \u201cViolencia e invisibilidad ind\u00edgena. La cuesti\u00f3n de los pueblos originarios durante el primer peronismo,\u201d Anuario del Instituto de Historia Argentina<\/em> 16, no. 1, e013 (April, 2016): 2.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a> <\/span>Ezequiel Adamovsky, \u201cHistoria del escudo peronista: sus inflexiones de clase y de ‘raza’ (1945-1955),”\u00a0Iberoamericana<\/em> 15, no. 59 (2015): 77.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a><\/span> Adamovsky, \u201cHistoria del escudo peronista,\u201d 77.<\/span><\/p>\n

[12]<\/a> <\/span>Vitullo wrote the following in a letter to Ignacio Pirovano, who at that time was the director of the Museo Nacional de Arte Decorativo de Buenos Aires: “He comprendido todo. Eva Per\u00f3n arquetipo s\u00edmbolo. Libertadora de las razas oprimidas de Am\u00e9rica. La veo como un mascar\u00f3n de proa rodeada de laureles.” Quoted in Orlando Barone, \u201cUn gran escultor argentino. El necesario rescate de Sesostris Vitullo,\u201d\u00a0Crisis<\/em>, no. 2 (June 1973): 64-68.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a> <\/span>Barone, \u201cUn gran escultor argentino,\u201d 67.<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a><\/span> \u201cPues con el contubernio de Per\u00f3n no hab\u00eda tiempo, no hab\u00eda fot\u00f3grafos, no hab\u00eda nada, era la nada, era la destrucci\u00f3n por la destrucci\u00f3n.\u201d Maruja Mallo. \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d min 38:48 of 54:28.<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a><\/span> See Mallo’s harsh comments on Evita Per\u00f3n in: \u201cMaruja Mallo, la diosa de los cuatro brazos,\u201d interview by Manuel Vicent, El Pa\u00eds<\/em>, September 12, 1981.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00″ dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 The Politics of Race in Argentina [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-526","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/526","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=526"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/526\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=526"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":514,"date":"2021-03-02T17:46:06","date_gmt":"2021-03-02T17:46:06","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=514"},"modified":"2021-05-02T23:45:19","modified_gmt":"2021-05-02T23:45:19","slug":"a-controversial-title","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/a-controversial-title\/","title":{"rendered":"A Controversial Title"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00 ” dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw|0px|0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”]<\/p>\n

HOME<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0<\/b>PART 2: Painting for Equality<\/span><\/a><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 A Controversial Title<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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A Controversial Title:<\/h1>\n

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The “Supremacy of Races,” or “Heads of Women”?<\/h2>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#a50b00″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”108px|||||” custom_padding=”||0px|||”][\/et_pb_divider][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_testimonial author=”Maruja Mallo, on her Heads of Women series, 1979″ portrait_url=”http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1773\/2021\/04\/Maruja_Mallo_icono.png” quote_icon_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” quote_icon_background_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ author_text_color=”#a50b00″ background_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” border_color_all=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” custom_margin=”43px|||||”]<\/p>\n

“Buscaba nada m\u00e1s la supremac\u00eda de las razas, que ten\u00edan todas las razas derecho a vivir y que hab\u00edan quedado vencidas, pues, por los sometimientos de las armas. Porque en Am\u00e9rica yo creo que el sometimiento fue por la cruz y la p\u00f3lvora.”<\/span><\/p>\n

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While Maruja Mallo lived in exile (1937-1965) and, in fact, throughout the 20th\u00a0century, the issue of race was central to Latin-American politics. Most of the debates took place in the context of governments interested in defining national identity and establishing the role of their nation\u2019s Indigenous and Black populations in it. Other conversations, that of course had resonance on a political level, were happening in the ethnographic and literary fields. A growing number of ethnographers, sociologists, and intellectuals proposed racial and ethnic diversity as the intrinsic power of Latin America in an effort to fight national internal fragmentation (in not unproblematic ways), White supremacy, and even Darwinist ideas. However, motivations and approaches to the same issues varied, as noted by Eduardo Elena:<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Typically, mid-century nationalist reforms were not framed explicitly as programs for racial uplift; their advocates preferred, instead, to emphasize ideals of modernization, social peace, and collective justice. Nevertheless, these movements promised, and in some cases delivered, improvements demanded by laboring majorities that included racially stigmatized sectors. At the same time, many of these movements embraced, to various degrees and with varying motivations, cultural nationalisms that valorized African and\/or indigenous folkways and acknowledged the virtues of multiracialism and mestizaje.[1]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

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Figure 47<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Sketches for heads of women.<\/strong><\/em> Ink on paper,\u00a021.4 x 18.4 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Some countries denied that racism was a problem for them, arguing that the degree of segregation and violence within their territories never reached the levels seen in the United States or South Africa, that the only true criteria for a society\u2019s hierarchization was class, or that their populations were just \u201cmixed.\u201d<\/span>[2]<\/a><\/span> Furthermore, the question of the role of Black people within a nation began to be considered first only in countries like Brazil and Cuba with larger black populations and then in the rest of the region.<\/span>[3]<\/a><\/span> For instance, from the 1930s the notion of \u201cracial democracy\u201d became particularly influential in Brazil (and later in other countries) through the work of sociologist and anthropologist Gilberto Freyre (1900-1987). Compared to the US, he perceived that, in Brazil, there has been less segregation. Therefore, he considered the latter to be a \u201cracial democracy\u201d because, in his view, it represented an example of a tolerant mixed society.<\/span>[4]<\/a><\/span> According to Peter Wade, the idea of Brazil as a \u201cracial democracy\u201d set the agenda for much of the study of Blacks in Latin America generally,<\/span>[5]<\/a><\/span> but racism continued to be strong, because \u201cthe existence of a large, even majority mixed-race population is no barrier to the persistence of racism against certain categories of people and also within the mestizo majority itself.\u201d<\/span>[6]<\/a><\/span> By contrast, Argentina was one of those countries that focused on ideas of class and saw itself as a predominantly White country.<\/span>[7]<\/a><\/span> According to Eduardo Elena, this generalized attitude has prompted historians to view Argentina as a regional outlier within these debates on the theme of race.<\/span>[8]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Clearly, Mallo was sensitive to these tensions and deeply reflected on them in her series of Heads<\/em>. Interestingly, the series\u2019s title offers one of the first clues about her interest in race. In the 1979\u2019s interview cited earlier, she noted that among the works purchased by jeweler Samuel Mallah: \u201cthere was a series of heads that I titled The Supremacy of the Races<\/em>\u201d (La supremac\u00eda de las razas<\/em>, in Spanish).[9]<\/span>\u00a0<\/a><\/span>When and why the title was changed to <\/span>Heads of Women<\/em> remains unclear, but it is evident that this more neutral title skirts charges that Mallo was vested in racial \u201csupremacy.\u201d As \u201csupremacy\u201d means the condition of being superior to others, such a word implies a hierarchy that is subsequently annulled by the use of the plural of \u201craces.\u201d If all races enjoy \u201csupremacy,\u201d is this not the same as saying that they are all equal? Therefore, the original title of the series was likely later eliminated to prevent any association of the series with ideas of \u201cWhite supremacy,\u201d which is the concept with which this term is currently associated. Paradoxically, what Mallo wanted to demonstrate with these paintings was her position <\/span>against<\/em> White supremacy, which still dominated social and political discourses both in Spain and Latin America in the 1940s, when she started work on the <\/span>Heads<\/em>. In the same interview with Spanish public television, Mallo declared that her motivation for the <\/span>Heads of Women <\/em>series was as follows:<\/span><\/p>\n

I was only searching for the supremacy of the races, [to show] that all races have the right to live and that they have been defeated by the submission caused by weapons. Because I believe that in [Latin] America the subjugation was due to the cross and the gunpowder.[10]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Here, again, Mallo employed the word \u201csupremacy\u201d as a sort of paradoxical synonym of \u201cequality.\u201d Furthermore, in her first phrase, she is clearly thinking of \u201call\u201d races, while in the second she is referring to only those who suffered the consequences of colonial rule in Latin America. This was later clarified by metaphorically alluding to the role of the Church (the cross) and Spanish conquers (the gunpowder) as the origin of race inequalities on that continent. This is an important statement, as it situates Mallo\u2019s disenchantment with Spain\u2019s colonial past as the driving force that led to her Heads of Women<\/em> and enables us to see the series as her refusal of it.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In the 20th century in Spain, as opposed to countries like Brazil, race was not explicitly considered to be a central issue in the construction of national identity, which was understood to be rooted in other markers. For instance, Catholicism had played a prominent role in the construction of a unitary Spanish identity since the sixteenth century.[11]<\/a> <\/span>Despite this, in the 1920s, some texts written in Spain acknowledged and reified ideas of race, as can be seen in this example from the eugenicist Luis Huerta:<\/p>\n

Each race contributes to the history of civilization with the particularities of their mental characteristics. In this way, broadly speaking, the Caucasian<\/em> race is the sovereign due to the zenith of their ethnical and aesthetical order; the yellow<\/em> stands out because of its intellectual liveliness; the black<\/em> manifests its vigor and somatic resistance; the red<\/em> amazes us because of its serenity and presence of mind.<\/span>[12]<\/span><\/span><\/a> (emphasis my own)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In the Hispanic world there were also still voices who saw miscegenation as a threat against the perceived purity<\/em> of the Spanish race<\/em>, as exemplified by the tract \u201cSignificado de la Conquista\u201d [Meaning of the Conquest] by Enrique Mart\u00ednez Paz, which was published in 1944 by the National Academy of History of Argentina:<\/p>\n

As in all conquest, the culture of those defeated filtered its poisonous influence in order to dissolve the specific personality of the victors (\u2026) The gravest obstacle for the establishment of the Spanish culture in America was the crossing of races.[13]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

In Spain, \u201cthe concept of the nation was dependent on what was understood as the overseas (the \u201ccolonial\u201d),\u201d As noted by Richard Cleminson.[14]<\/a><\/span> This notion prevailed into the 1940s and the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939-1975). Although Mallo did not live in Spain from 1937 to 1965, these ideas had echoes in Latin America. As an example, we can cite the \u201cDay of the Race\u201d (Fiesta de la Raza), a national holiday celebrated in Spain since 1892 that takes place on the 12th of October. As noted by Mar\u00eda del Mar del Pozo and Jacques F.A. Braster, \u201cthis day was highly valued by the Catholic Church, that interpreted the discovery of America as the start of the successful \u2018Christianization\u2019 of the new continent.\u201d[15]<\/a> <\/span>Interestingly, since the 1910s and 1920s, Latin American countries such as Argentina, Per\u00fa, Chile, and Cuba subscribed to the celebration as a way to oppose the growing influence of the United States in their territories.[16]<\/a> <\/span>During the first half of the 20th\u00a0<\/sup>century, unrecognized privilege among the Spanish, and an appreciable degree of paternalism on Spain\u2019s part towards the Latin American population, were palpable.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

These were the kinds of outdated but still pervasive beliefs that Mallo surely wanted to combat when she declared in 1979 that her Heads<\/em> were meant to show the equality of those races that had been defeated by \u201cthe cross and the gunpowder.”[17]<\/a> <\/span>She seemed to understand the violent legacy of colonialism in Latin America as one of the reasons why people of color were still subjugated. By means of painting this series, she was contesting hierarchies inherited from the past that were still very vivid during the middle of the 20th century.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

According to Zanetta, in Mallo\u2019s series The Religion of Work<\/em>, the artist transformed the drawings of fishermen that she did while experiencing the horrors of the Spanish Civil War into universal archetypes symbolizing a new religion \u201cbased on tolerance and in harmony, the religion of the \u2018Universal Mankind.\u2019\u201d[18]<\/a><\/span> I propose that in Heads of Women<\/em> the artist continued her commentary against everything that implied destruction and repression. Instead of responding to the reality of the war in her native country, she introduced her beautiful multi-racial archetypes as a reaction against the submission caused by colonial powers of the past against Indigenous and Black communities in Latin America.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/the-politics-of-race-in-argentina” button_text=”Next: The Politics of Race in Argentina” button_alignment=”center” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_button=”on” button_text_color=”#a50b00″ button_bg_color=”rgba(234,160,152,0.27)” button_border_color=”rgba(0,0,0,0)” button_border_radius=”0px”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ admin_label=”Footer” _builder_version=”3.24″ background_size=”initial” background_repeat=”repeat-y” custom_padding=”0px|||||” saved_tabs=”all” locked=”off”][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=”on” gutter_width=”2″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ border_width_top=”2px” border_color_top=”#a50b00″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.25″ custom_padding=”|||” custom_padding__hover=”|||”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″]<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> <\/span>Eduardo Elena, \u201cArgentina in Black and White: Race, Peronism, and the Color of Politics, 1940s to the present,\u201d in Rethinking Race in Modern Argentina<\/em>, edited by Paulina Alberto and Eduardo Elena (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 184.<\/span><\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> <\/span>Peter Wade, \u201cThe Political Economy of Race and Sex in Contemporary Latin America.\u201d In Race and Sex in Latin America, 156-207 (London: Pluto Press, 2009): 157.<\/span><\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> <\/span>Wade, Race and Ethnicity<\/em>, 50<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> <\/span>Wade, Race and Ethnicity<\/em>, 51.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a><\/span> Wade, Race and Ethnicity<\/em>, 52.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> <\/span>Wade, \u201cThe Political Economy of Race,\u201d 157.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> <\/span>Argentinean 19th-century elites built the nation upon the concept of Whiteness and in relation to its European origins. Read more on the relevance of race in the process of nation-building in Argentina in Ezequiel Adamovsky, \u201cEl color de la naci\u00f3n argentina. Conflictos y negociaciones por la definici\u00f3n de un\u00a0ethnos<\/em> nacional, de la crisis al Bicentenario,\u201d Jahrbuch f\u00fcr Geschichte Lateinamerikas<\/em> 49 (2012): 343-364.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a> <\/span>Elena, \u201cArgentina in Black and White,\u201d 185.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a> <\/span>\u201cEntonces no he podido hacer todas las fotograf\u00edas que hubiera deseado de todos mis cuadros, que los compr\u00f3 casi todos un israelita franc\u00e9s que se llamaba Samuel Mallah que ten\u00eda una joyer\u00eda en Par\u00eds, otra en Nueva York, otra en Chile y otra en Argentina…. Y ten\u00eda la joyer\u00eda mezclada con los cuadros, porque ten\u00eda los cuadros como joyas. Y \u00e9l se qued\u00f3 con casi todas… Pues me compr\u00f3 como treinta y tantas cabezas, donde figuran una serie de cabezas que yo titulaba La supremac\u00eda de las razas.<\/em>\u201d Maruja Mallo, \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d min. 38:58 of 54:28.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>My translation. Original in Spanish: “Buscaba nada m\u00e1s la supremac\u00eda de las razas, que ten\u00edan todas las razas derecho a vivir y que hab\u00edan quedado vencidas pues por los sometimientos de las armas. Porque en Am\u00e9rica yo creo que el sometimiento fue por la cruz y la p\u00f3lvora.\u201d Maruja Mallo, \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d min 39:57 of 54:28.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a> <\/span>Pablo Alonso Gonz\u00e1lez, \u201cRace and Ethnicity in the Construction of the Nation in Spain: the Case of the Maragatos,\u201d Ethnic and Racial Studies<\/em> 39, no. 4 (2016): 616.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Cada raza aporta a la historia de la civilizaci\u00f3n los peculiares influjos que constituyen su caracter\u00edstica mental. As\u00ed, y a grandes rasgos, la raza cauc\u00e1sica, lleva la soberan\u00eda por sus culminaciones de orden \u00e9tnico y est\u00e9tico: la amarilla destaca por su vivacidad intelectual: la negra manifiesta su vigor y resistencia som\u00e1tica; la roja asombra por su gran serenidad y presencia de \u00e1nimo.\u201d Luis Huerta, \u201cLa genicultura,\u201d Eugenia<\/em>, no.33 (1923): 378. Quoted in Francisca Ju\u00e1rez Gonz\u00e1lez, \u201cLa eugenesia en Espa\u00f1a, entre la ciencia y la doctrina sociopol\u00edtica,\u201d Asclepio<\/em> 51, no.2 (1999): 122.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>My translation. Original text in Spanish: “Como en toda conquista, la cultura de los vencidos filtraba su venenosa influencia para disolver la personalidad espec\u00edfica de las instituciones de los vencedores (\u2026) El m\u00e1s grave obst\u00e1culo para la implantaci\u00f3n de la cultura de Espa\u00f1a en Am\u00e9rica, fue la cruza de razas.\u201d Enrique Mart\u00ednez Paz, \u201cSignificado de la Conquista,\u201d Bolet\u00edn de la Academia Nacional de la Historia<\/em> 17 (Buenos Aires 1944): 168.<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a><\/span> Richard Cleminson, \u201cIberian eugenics? Cross-overs and contrasts between Spanish and Portuguese eugenics,\u201d Dynamis <\/em>37, no. 1 (2017): 101.<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a><\/span> Mar\u00eda del Mar del Pozo Andr\u00e9s and Jacques F.A. Braster, \u201cThe Rebirth of the \u2018Spanish Race\u2019: The State, Nationalism, and Education in Spain, 1875\u20131931,\u201d European History Quarterly<\/em> 29, no. 1 (January 1999): 85.<\/p>\n

[16]<\/a><\/span> Del Pozo and Braster, \u201cThe Rebirth of the \u2018Spanish Race,\u2019\u201d 85.<\/span><\/p>\n

[17]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0Maruja Mallo. \u201cIm\u00e1genes. Artes visuales: Maruja Mallo,\u201d 40:32 of 54:28 min.<\/p>\n

[18]<\/a><\/span> Mar\u00eda Alejandra Zanetta, \u201cContinuaci\u00f3n de su compromiso social en el exilio: La Religi\u00f3n del Trabajo,\u201d section 6 in\u00a0La subversion enmascarada. An\u00e1lisis de la obra de Maruja Mallo<\/em> (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2014): Kindle, n.p.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

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[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00 ” dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw|0px|0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”44px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”26px||13px|||”] HOME\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0\u00a0PART 2: Painting for Equality\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 A Controversial Title [\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ custom_margin=”|auto|46px|auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ use_custom_width=”on” […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3531,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-514","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/514","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3531"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=514"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/514\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=514"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":508,"date":"2021-03-02T17:16:41","date_gmt":"2021-03-02T17:16:41","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/?page_id=508"},"modified":"2021-05-02T23:40:08","modified_gmt":"2021-05-02T23:40:08","slug":"painting-for-equality-intro","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/marujamalloheadsofwomen\/painting-for-equality-intro\/","title":{"rendered":"Painting for Equality"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00 ” dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ custom_padding_last_edited=”off|desktop” admin_label=”Header” _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color_gradient_direction=”90deg” background_enable_image=”off” width=”100%” max_width=”100%” max_width_last_edited=”on|desktop” custom_padding=”0vw||0vw||true|” custom_padding_tablet=”5vw||5vw||true” background_last_edited=”on|phone” use_background_color_gradient_tablet=”on” use_background_color_gradient_phone=”on” background_color_gradient_start_tablet=”#efefef” background_color_gradient_start_position_tablet=”73%” background_color_gradient_start_position_phone=”100%” background_position_tablet=”top_left” locked=”off”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”||||||||” text_font_size=”21px” header_font=”Prata||||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#a50b00″ header_font_size=”49px” header_line_height=”1.3em” header_2_font=”|500||on|||||” header_2_font_size=”14px” header_2_letter_spacing=”5px” header_2_line_height=”2em” transform_translate_linked=”off” max_width=”100%” max_width_tablet=”70%” max_width_last_edited=”off|phone” custom_margin=”101px||-28px|||” custom_padding=”||0px|||” header_font_size_tablet=”80px” header_font_size_phone=”50px” header_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” inline_fonts=”Arial”]<\/p>\n

Part 2: Painting for Equality<\/h1>\n

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Contesting Racism in Latin America and Spain<\/span><\/p>\n

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INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n

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Observing the Heads of Women<\/em> series we immediately realize that these paintings, apart from transmitting a sense of geometrical perfection, stand out for creating a sort of pictorial catalog of racial diversity. For all Mallo\u2019s efforts to create a timeless, ideal beauty, the series is equally vested in diverse complexions and the celebration of different types of female and ethnic beauty. Exploring the Heads<\/em> series from the perspective of race will enrich them and allow for a broader understanding of racial representation in the arts of the Hispanic world.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

When Mallo returned to Spain after twenty-five years in exile in South America, she commented on how impressed she was by all the novelties that she saw in the region, especially new landscapes and populations with which she was previously unfamiliar. For example, in a lecture delivered in 1981, she declared that in South America \u201cmagically appeared in front of [her] the exotic races.\u201d[1]<\/span><\/a> Although mainstream Latin American culture saw itself as predominantly white, Mallo appreciated its racial and ethnic diversity, which was the focus of multiple debates throughout the twentieth century in Latin American nations that emerged as post-colonial states. Until the end of the 20th<\/span>\u00a0century, the prevailing ideology of mestizaje<\/em> (mixture of races and cultures) tried to conceal the prevailing relationships based on the subordination of Indigenous and Black communities to a single language (Spanish or Portuguese) and a single culture. However, Indigenous and Black peoples continued fighting for their rights, forcing the states to reconsider their discriminatory discourses.[2]<\/a> Aware of the discrimination experienced by these communities, Mallo felt the necessity of responding to it by means of her very personal pictorial language.<\/em><\/p>\n

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Figure 46.\u00a0Polynesia<\/em>\u00a0<\/strong>(profile) 1951.\u00a0Unknown technique,\u00a055 x 43 cm.\u00a0<\/span>\u00a9\u00a0Maruja Mallo<\/span><\/p>\n

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With Heads of Women<\/em>, Mallo was paralleling the discussions on race, ethnicity, and national identity in political, intellectual, and scientific circles throughout the Hispanic world in the first half of the twentieth century. Although the Heads<\/em> series was produced from c.1940 to 1952, in this section, I will be mentioning some theories, ideas and artworks developed as early as the 1920s because they resonated for Mallo when she was working on the Heads<\/em>. Likewise, theories on race and national identity that originated in one specific country influenced the intellectual circles of others within the Hispanic world due to a shared network of personal relationships and publications in Spanish. For instance, Mallo did not live in Mexico but she had connections in that country, allowing for the possibility that the notion of the \u201ccosmic race\u201d proposed by the Mexican Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos impacted her own ideas on the topic. Moreover, even though Mallo had her permanent residence in Buenos Aires, and hence I devote the first section of this project to the Argentinean context, the influence of Brazilian diversity on the Heads <\/em>cannot be disregarded, as we know the impact that Brazil had on the artist, and how connected the series is with Brazilian precedents.<\/p>\n

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[1]<\/a><\/span>\u00a0My translation. Original text in Spanish: \u201cEn este inmenso continente que me brindaba\u2026la alegr\u00eda de vivir frente a la agon\u00eda de morir, era la aurora que me revelaba nuevas visiones, sorpresas y conceptos: la clarificaci\u00f3n que me empujaba como una cascada magna\u2026aparecieron m\u00e1gicamente ante m\u00ed las ex\u00f3ticas razas de un in\u00e9dito despertar\u2026que originaron un conjunto de diversos cuadros surreales\u2026rostros vivos contrastando con las simbi\u00f3ticas m\u00e1scaras abstractas evolucionando a la inc\u00f3gnita supremac\u00eda de las razas.\u201d Maruja Mallo, \u201cEl surrealismo a trav\u00e9s de mi obra\u201d (1981). Transcribed in Maruja Mallo<\/em>, edited by Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala and Francisco Rivas (Madrid: Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma, 1992): 120.<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a><\/span> Alicia Castellanos Guerrero, \u201cRacismo, multietnicidad y democracia en Am\u00e9rica Latina,\u201d in Visiones de fin de siglo. Bolivia y Am\u00e9rica Latina en el siglo XX<\/em>, directed by Dora Caj\u00edas, Magdalena Caj\u00edas, Carmen Johnson, and Iris Villegas (Institut fran\u00e7ais d\u2019\u00e9tudes andines, 2001): online edition, n.p.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ background_color=”#444444″ custom_padding=”||0px|||”][et_pb_row custom_padding=”0px|||||” custom_margin=”-43px|auto||auto||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_text_color=”#bfbfbf” text_font_size=”11px” custom_margin=”||-12px|||”]<\/p>\n

Web design: Esther Rodr\u00edguez C\u00e1mara, 2021<\/p>\n

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[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ fullwidth=”on” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_fullwidth_menu fullwidth_menu=”off” active_link_color=”#a50b00 ” dropdown_menu_bg_color=”#ffffff” dropdown_menu_line_color=”#000000″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″ menu_font=”|||on|||||” menu_text_color=”#848484″ background_enable_color=”off” background_enable_image=”off” border_width_bottom=”2px” border_color_bottom=”#e02b20″ custom_margin=”|||0px|false|false”][\/et_pb_fullwidth_menu][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_row custom_padding=”40px|||||” _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”0px||-16px|||” custom_padding=”7px||13px|||”]<\/p>\n

HOME<\/span><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u203a\u00a0<\/b>Resources<\/a>\u00a0\u203a\u00a0 List of Images<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ text_font=”Prata||||||||” text_text_color=”#a50b00″ text_font_size=”62px” text_line_height=”1.4em” custom_padding=”29px|||||”]<\/p>\n

List of Images<\/span><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”3.26.3″][et_pb_text _builder_version=”3.26.3″ custom_margin=”-25px|||||”]<\/p>\n

Figure 1.<\/strong> <\/span>Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Cabezas de mujer<\/em>, or Retratos bidimensionales<\/em> [Heads of Women, or Bidimensional Portraits], c. 1940-1952. All paintings\u00a0\u00a9 Maruja Mallo (collage by me). For more information on each image composing this collage\u00a0see figures 3-14 of this list.<\/p>\n

Figure 2.<\/strong><\/span> Maruja Mallo in her\u00a0house-studio in Buenos Aires\u00a0in 1944. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185125123399\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 3.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Cabeza de mujer, <\/em>frente [Head of Woman,\u00a0<\/em>front], 1941. Oil on panel, 56 x 44 cm. Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes Rosa Galisteo de Rodr\u00edguez, Argentina \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accesed from Pinterest Museo Rosa Calisteo,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.co.uk\/pin\/317996423685355937\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 4.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Cabeza de mujer<\/em>, perfil [Head of Woman, front], 1941. Oil on panel, 56 x 44 cm. Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes Rosa Galisteo de Rodr\u00edguez, Argentina \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accesed from Pinterest Museo Rosa Calisteo, https:\/\/www.pinterest.co.uk\/pin\/449163762837629887\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 5. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Cabeza de mujer negra<\/em>, frente [Head of Black Woman, front], 1946. Oil on canvas, 56.5 x 46.5 cm. Museo de Pontevedra, Spain \u00a9 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York\/VEGAP, Madrid; Copyright Estate of Maruja Mallo, DACS. Accessed from Tanjand Livejournal, <\/em>https:\/\/tanjand.livejournal.com\/2558585.html<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 6. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Silhouette of Cabeza de mujer negra<\/em>, perfil [Head of Black Woman,\u00a0<\/em>profile], 1946. Unknown technique, 56 x 46 cm. Unknown location. An image of this painting will likely be published for the first time in Maruja Mallo\u2019s catalog raisson\u00e9. For reference, see figure 37, in which Maruja Mallo appears posing next to this painting. Silhouette done from a white-and-white reproduction of the painting, accessed thanks to the courtesy of gallerist Guillermo de Osma.<\/p>\n

Figure 7.<\/strong><\/span> Maruja Mallo. La cierva humana<\/em>, frente [The Human Deer,\u00a0front], 1948. Oil on canvas, 55.5 x 45 cm. Museo de Bellas Artes de La Boca “Benito Quinquela Mart\u00edn,” Argentina \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from\u00a0Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala eds.,\u00a0Maruja Mallo,\u00a0<\/em>vol.1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009): 81.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 8. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. La cierva humana<\/em>, perfil [The Human Deer, profile], 1948. Oil on canvas, 56 x 46 cm. Museo de Bellas Artes de La Boca “Benito Quinquela Mart\u00edn,” Argentina \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from journal Clar\u00edn<\/em>, https:\/\/www.clarin.com\/cultura\/amiga-dali-lorca-alberti-historia-gran-pintora-gallega-maruja-mallo_0_6M-xPoQbX.html<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 9.<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0Maruja Mallo. Silhouette of Polinesia<\/em>, frente [Polynesia,\u00a0<\/em>front], 1951. Unknown technique, 56 x 44 cm? Unknown location. An image of this painting will likely be published for the first time in Maruja Mallo\u2019s catalog raisson\u00e9.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 10.<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0<\/em>Maruja Mallo. Polinesia<\/em>, frente [Polynesia, profile], 1951. Oil on canvas, 55 x 43 cm. C.A.C. T\u00e9cnicas Reunidas, S.A.- Museo Patio Herreriano, Valladolid, Spain \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from\u00a0Estrella de Diego.\u00a0<\/span>Maruja Mallo <\/em>(Madrid: Fundaci\u00f3n Mapfre, 2008): 88.<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 11. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Mujer rubia<\/em> or El campe\u00f3n<\/em> [Blonde Woman or The Male Champion], 1951. Oil on panel, 49 x 40 cm.\u00a0Colecci\u00f3n de Arte Afundaci\u00f3n Obra Social Abanca, Spain. \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from https:\/\/www.afundacion.org\/es\/coleccion\/obra\/43745223_mujer_rubia<\/a> <\/span>(image: \u00a9 Afundaci\u00f3n Obra Social Abanca)<\/p>\n

Figure 12.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Oro<\/em> [Gold], 1951. Oil on canvas glued on panel, 51 x 40 cm. Museo Patio Herreriano, Valladolid, Spain \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from\u00a0Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala eds.,\u00a0Maruja Mallo,\u00a0<\/em>vol.1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009): 199.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 13. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Joven negra<\/em> [Young Black Woman], 1948. Oil on cardboard, 47 x 38.5 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo\/ Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from https:\/\/www.descubrirelarte.es\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/04-.%C2%A9MarujaMallo_JovenNegra_1948_Galer%C3%ADa-Guillermo-de-Osma-838×1024.jpg<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 14. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Argentina<\/em>, 1952. Oil on canvas, 49 x 40.7 cm. US private collection \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Por amor al arte<\/em> [blog], http:\/\/poramoralarte-exposito.blogspot.com\/2020\/01\/maruja-mallo-1902-1995.html<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 15.<\/strong><\/span>\u00a0Maruja Mallo.\u00a0Estudio para cabeza de mujer<\/em> [Sketch for Head of Woman], 1940 -1944. Oil on cardboard, 50 x 40 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo\/Archivo Lafuente \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes de Santiago de Chile’s Facebook profile, https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/MNBAChile\/photos\/a.398412546261\/10155995589566262\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 16.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Retrato de mujer<\/em>, perfil [Portrait of Woman<\/em>, profile], c. 1947. Private collection. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest profile, https:\/\/www.pinterest.co.uk\/pin\/632826185113843612\/?nic_v1=1aSD8DpyWLSsKNvZ25kOpPufXm8PSeybaDW5IpyVKXSZcX4VQNyFuYsjuTKwSvygoA<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 17. <\/span><\/strong>Cover of the first monograph devoted to Maruja Mallo, with prologue by Ram\u00f3n de G\u00f3mez de la Serna. Buenos Aires: Losada, 1942. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185115009128\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 18.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Bacchus<\/em>, 1511. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, Italy. Accessed from Wikioo<\/em>, https:\/\/wikioo.org\/es\/paintings.php?refarticle=8XZUZ5&titlepainting=Bacchus&artistname=Jacopo%20Sansovino<\/a><\/span>
Right: Plasters at the San Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Madrid, Spain. Accessed from https:\/\/www.realacademiabellasartessanfernando.com\/es\/taller-de-vaciados<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 19.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: Julio Mois\u00e9s Fern\u00e1ndez de Villasante. Retrato de la se\u00f1orita Iturri\u00f3z <\/em>[Portrait of Miss Iturri\u00f3z], 1921. Oil on canvas, 65.5 x 53 cm. Accessed from From Tesoros de las colecciones privadas de las Palmas de Gran Canaria (1887-1938)<\/em> (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: Museo N\u00e9stor, 2004), 160-161, https:\/\/mdc.ulpgc.es\/cgi-bin\/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=\/MDC&CISOPTR=43548&filename=80031.pdf<\/a><\/span>
Right: Maruja Mallo, Mar\u00eda Luisa<\/em>, c.1922. Oil on tablex, 55 x 48 cm. \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from VEGAP, http:\/\/bi.vegap.es\/ext\/obra.aspx?id=10929<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 20.<\/span><\/strong> Piero della Francesca. The Duke and Duchess of Urbino<\/em>, c. 1465-1472. Tempera on panel, 47 cm \u00d7 33 cm. Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy. Accessed from Wikipedia<\/em>, https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Duke_and_Duchess_of_Urbino#\/media\/File:Piero_della_Francesca_044.jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 21.<\/span><\/strong>
Right: Maruja Mallo, Head of Woman<\/em> (profile), 1941. See figure 4.
Left: Maruja Mallo. Blonde Woman\/ The [Male] Champion<\/em>, 1951. See figure 11.<\/p>\n

Figure 22. <\/span><\/strong>Naturaleza viva <\/em>[Living Nature, 1942] and Head of Woman<\/em> (profile, 1941) featured at magazine Renacimiento<\/em>, Revista Italo-Sudamericana de Cultura<\/em> nos. 10-11, Lima, Per\u00fa. Newspaper clipping. Archivo Maruja Mallo.\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185128670909\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 23. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Cabeza de frente y de perfil<\/em> [Head in Frontal and Profile View], 1947. Pencil on paper, 24.5 x 35 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185111786512\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 24.<\/span><\/strong>
Up: Maruja Mallo. El canto de las espigas<\/em> [The Song of the Spikes, 1939]. Oil on canvas, 118 x 233 cm. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sof\u00eda. Accessed from https:\/\/www.museoreinasofia.es\/en\/collection\/artwork\/canto-espigas-song-spikes<\/a><\/span>
Down: \u201cHarmonic outline\u201d of The Song of the Spikes<\/em>.\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/771522979900628729\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 25.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: Maruja Mallo. Naturaleza Viva <\/em>[Living Nature, 1943]. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185130907457\/<\/a><\/span>
Right: Its corresponding \u201charmonic outline.\u201d Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185131044878\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 26.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Perspectiva de cubo y cabeza<\/em> [Perspective of Cube and Head], 1936-1937. Pencil and color pencil on paper, 21.5 x 49 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo\/Archivo Lafuente. Accessed from Archivo Lafuente,\u00a0https:\/\/www.archivolafuente.com\/obra-artistica\/1900-1945\/espana\/archivo-maruja-mallo\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 27.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. The Human Deer<\/em> (front and profile, 1948) \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. See figures 7 and 8.<\/p>\n

Figure 28. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Bidimensional Portrait<\/em>, September 1947. Pencil on paper, 9 x 16 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185120831476\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 29.<\/span><\/strong> Drawings, diagrams, and annotations by Maruja Mallo, Buenos Aires, 1937. They are a synthesis of Matila C. Ghyka\u2019s Esth\u00e9tique des proportions dans la nature et dans les arts<\/em>. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185119017578\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 30. <\/span><\/strong>Harmonic analysis of a photo of Miss Helen Willis, following the golden ratio. In Matila Ghyka, El n\u00famero de oro<\/em>, vol I (Poseid\u00f3n, 1984): Plates XIX and XX, p. 72-73 (First edition in French:\u00a0Le nombre d\u2019or.\u00a0<\/em>Paris: Gallimard, 1931): Accessed from https:\/\/es.scribd.com\/doc\/133060470\/Ghyka-Matila-El-Numero-de-Oro-Tomo-I<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 31.<\/span><\/strong> Cover of the first edition of Joaqu\u00edn Torres Garc\u00eda\u2019s Universalismo Constructivo<\/em>. Buenos Aires: Poseid\u00f3n, 1944. Accessed from Librer\u00eda El Astillero<\/em>, https:\/\/libreriaelastillero.com\/libros\/universalismo-constructivo-contribucion-a-la-unificacion-del-arte-y-la-cultura-de-america.html<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 32.
<\/span><\/strong>Left. Maruja Mallo. <\/span>Estampa cinem\u00e1tica<\/em> [Cinematic Print, 1927]. Ink and color pencils on paper, 44 x 31 cm. Accessed from <\/span>https:\/\/www.descubrirelarte.es\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/03-.%C2%A9MarujaMallo_EstambaCinetica_1927_Galer%C3%ADa-Guillermo-de-Osma.jpg<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Right. Maruja Mallo. Cover for Xavier Abril\u2019s Hollywood<\/em> (Madrid: Editorial Ulises, 1931). Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest:\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185127284282\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 33.<\/span><\/strong> Actress Kay Francis (1905-1968)<\/span>\u00a0featured on the cover of Cinelandia <\/em>(July 1940). Accessed from Cuba Collectibles Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/29695678781062780\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 34.<\/strong><\/span> Actress Mar\u00eda F\u00e9lix (1914-2002) featured in the cover of the Argentinean magazine Sinton\u00eda<\/em> in 1949. Accessed from Fundaci\u00f3n Mar\u00eda F\u00e9lix, https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/fundacionmariafelix\/photos\/a.1107739569428342\/1534342493434712\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 35.<\/strong>
<\/span>Right: Reproduction of Maruja Mallo\u2019s El Campe\u00f3n<\/em> (currently known as Blonde Woman<\/em>, 1951) in the Argentinean magazine Para Ti<\/em>. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185137874594\/<\/a><\/span>
Left: Reproduction of Maruja Mallo’s\u00a0The Human Deer<\/em> (front, 1948) in the Argentinean magazine Para Ti<\/em>. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185139760744\/<\/a>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 36.<\/span><\/strong> Various covers of the Argentinean magazine Para Ti <\/em>designed by Ra\u00fal Manteola, 1940s. Compiled by Ricardo G\u00fciraldes for Chilean Charm<\/em>, https:\/\/www.chileancharm.com\/MANTEOLA\/RAUL_MANTEOLA.htm<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 37.\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>Maruja Mallo posing next to Head of Black Woman<\/em>, profile (1946) at her exhibition \u201cLes peintures de Maruja Mallo\u201d at Silvagni Gallery in Paris (March 3-31, 1950). Photographed reproduced as an illustration of Claude Auzaguet\u2019s comment on Mallo\u2019s exhibition in Paris, Elle <\/em>(ed. France) no. 225 (March 20, 1950): 8. Image reproduced from my own copy of that issue of Elle<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Figure 38.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: Maruja Mallo. Head of Woman<\/em>, front, 1941. See figure 3.
Center: British actress Vivien Leigh as Scarlett O\u2019Hara in the movie Gone with the Wind<\/em>. Accessed from Wikimedia Commons, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Vivien_Leigh_Gone_Wind_Restored.jpg<\/a><\/span>
Right: Maruja Mallo, Argentina<\/em>, 1952. See figure 14.<\/p>\n

Figure 39.<\/strong><\/span> Maruja Mallo at the Spanish TV program A fondo<\/em> in 1980, when she was interviewed by Joaqu\u00edn Soler Serrano. Clip from https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Wb2HXDael7I<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 40. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Retrato de hombre con escala de color <\/em>[Portrait of a Man with Color Scale], undated. Oil and pencil on cardboard, 37 x 52,5 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Galer\u00eda Guillermo de Osma. \u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Enciclopedia online Historia\/Arte<\/em>, https:\/\/historia-arte.com\/obras\/retrato-de-hombre-con-escala-de-colores<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 41.<\/span><\/strong> A vintage Maybelline ad from 1940. Accessed from https:\/\/maybelline.tumblr.com\/post\/13501651206\/a-vintage-maybelline-ad-from-1940<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 42.<\/span><\/strong> \u201cA New Rainbow of Lipsticks Reds\u2026\u201d 1940s Max Factor advertisement. Accessed from http:\/\/4.bp.blogspot.com\/-wJ1uftrbofM\/ULemej1rdbI\/AAAAAAAABH4\/X4L1QeAirq8\/s1600\/314990_459185830782659_1555191842_n.jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 43.<\/strong> <\/span>Comparison of Maruja Mallo\u2019s The Human Deer<\/em> (profile, 1948), Head of Black Woman<\/em> (1946), and Head of Woman<\/em> (front, 1941) and three different studio lighting styles of The Lighting Guide developed by The Camera World,<\/em>\u00a0https:\/\/cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net\/FsTYC6GARZyGWq4i8Ge2rS.jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 44.<\/span><\/strong> Top Hollywood hairstyles in 1941. Accessed from Glamour Daze: A Vintage Fashion and Beauty Archive, <\/em><\/span>https:\/\/image.glamourdaze.com\/2016\/01\/Top-Hollywood-Hairstyle-Looks-for-1941-768×496.jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 45.<\/span><\/strong>
Right: Eartha Kitt. Accessed from https:\/\/i.pinimg.com\/originals\/70\/26\/8d\/70268d29ab9e7d8e5662936e335d6706.jpg<\/a><\/span>
Center: Anne Cole Lowe. Accessed from https:\/\/mystreetstyles.com\/2020\/03\/09\/women-in-fashion-ann-cole-lowe\/<\/span><\/a>
Left: Theresa Harris. Accesed from https:\/\/www.imdb.com\/name\/nm0365382\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 46.<\/strong><\/span> Polynesia<\/em> (profile) 1951. See figure 10.<\/p>\n

Figure 47.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Estudios de cabeza de mujer [Sketches for heads of women]. Ink on paper,\u00a021.4 x 18.4 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo\/Archivo Lafuente. Accessed from Archivo Lafuente, https:\/\/www.archivolafuente.com\/obra-artistica\/1900-1945\/espana\/archivo-maruja-mallo\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 48. <\/span><\/strong>Eva Per\u00f3n and a group of miners during the celebration of her birthday on May 7, 1951. Accessed from Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Hist\u00f3ricas Eva Per\u00f3n,\u00a0http:\/\/web.museoevita.org.ar\/?page_id=4801<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 49. <\/span><\/strong>Actress and singer Rita Montero and her father (Severo Miguel Montero) with mother and daughter (Mar\u00eda Magdalena \u201cMagda\u201d) from a neighboring family. Unidentified photographer, Buenos Aires, c. 1936. Black and white photographic paper Ridax<\/em>, 8.9 x 6.3 cm. Accessed from Norberto Pablo Cirio, “Aportes para el estudio de la fotograf\u00eda de afroargentinos: la colecci\u00f3n Rita Luc\u00eda Montero,” Identidades<\/em> 8 (2016): 10,\u00a0https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/37051734\/Aportes_para_el_estudio_de_la_fotografi_a_de_afroargentinos_la_coleccio_n_Rita_Luci_a_Montero<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 50.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo and friends during summer in Punta del Este, Uruguay, c. 1942. Accessed from https:\/\/pbs.twimg.com\/media\/DncWKbyW0AAPsu6?format=jpg&name=small<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 51. <\/span><\/strong>Detail from Maruja Mallo\u2019s Sketch for a Head of Woman<\/em>, 1940-1944. Photo: Mar\u00eda Cimadevilla,\u00a0from her blog “\u00c9rase infinitas veces,” http:\/\/eraseinfinitasveces.com\/mitad-angel-mitad-marisco\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 52.\u00a0<\/span><\/strong>Sesostris Vitullo. Eva Per\u00f3n, arquetipo s\u00edmbolo<\/em>\u00a0[Archetype Symbol], 1952. Stone of Gard, h: 1.12 m. Collection Universidad Torcuato Di Tella. Accessed from Proa Foundation, http:\/\/www.proa.org\/exhibiciones\/pasadas\/vitullo\/sala1\/1.html<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 53. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Argentina<\/em>, 1952. See figure 14.<\/p>\n

Figure 54.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo interviewed by a journalist of O Jornal<\/em> in her apartment of the Copacabana Palace, Rio de Janeiro, 1946. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Offical Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185113659784\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 55.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. The Human Deer<\/em> (front and profile). See figures 7 and 8.<\/p>\n

Figure 56. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo,
Left: Joven mujer negra desnuda<\/em> [Young Nude Black Woman], 1948. Oil and pencil on cardboard, 49 x 34.5 cm. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.cl\/pin\/632826185127328178\/<\/a><\/span>
Center: Estudio para desnudo femenino<\/em> [Study for Female Nude], 1946. Oil on canvas, 50 x 38.5 cm. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.cl\/pin\/632826185126884017\/<\/a><\/span>
Right:\u00a0<\/strong>\u00a0Joven negra de espaldas<\/em> [Young\u00a0Black Woman with Her Back Turned]. Oil and pencil on cardboard, 53 x 37 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest,\u00a0https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185127428778\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 57. <\/span><\/strong>Anita Malfatti. Tropical,<\/em> 1917. Oil on canvas,\u00a0 77 x 102 cm. Collection of the Art Museum of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Accessed from https:\/\/dam-13749.kxcdn.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/ANITA-MALFATTI-1.jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 58.<\/span><\/strong> Tarsila do Amaral. A Negra<\/em>, 1923. Oil on canvas, 100 x 80 cm. Museo de Arte Contempor\u00e2nea de Universidade de S\u00e3o Paulo. Accessed from http:\/\/tarsiladoamaral.com.br\/obra\/inicio-do-cubismo-1923\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 59.<\/span><\/strong>
Right: Emilio di Cavalcanti, Samba,<\/em> 1925 (destroyed in 2012). Oil on canvas, 175 x 154 cm. Accessed from https:\/\/www.newcitybrazil.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/03\/Di-Cavalcanti-22Samba22-1925-1.75-x-1.54-meter-oil-on-canvas.-Modernist-icon-destroyed-in-2012-fire.-Genevi%C3%A8ve-and-Jean-Boghici-Collection.jpg<\/a><\/span>
Left: Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Mulatas<\/em>, 1927. Oil on cardboard, 50 x 39 cm. Accessed from\u00a0Enciclop\u00e9dia Ita\u00fa Cultural de Arte e Cultura Brasileiras. S\u00e3o Paulo: Ita\u00fa Cultural, 2021,\u00a0<\/span>https:\/\/enciclopedia.itaucultural.org.br\/obra4598\/mulatas<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 60.<\/span><\/strong>
Right: Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Mulata em Rua Vermelha<\/em>, 1960. Oil on canvas, 98 x 79 cm.\u00a0Cole\u00e7\u00e3o Ant\u00f4nio Salgado, Rio de Janeiro<\/span>. Accessed from Templo Cultural Delfos, A Digital Archive, http:\/\/1.bp.blogspot.com\/-kaHNuzpUWZk\/UZF42cp1EKI\/AAAAAAAAJBs\/WDbFU-Ez9h8\/s1600\/Mulata+em+Rua+Vermelha+,+1960.jpg<\/a><\/span>
Left: Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Mulata e p\u00e1ssaros, <\/em>1967. Oil on canvas, 81.3 x 61 cm. Accessed from Christie’s,\u00a0https:\/\/www.christies.com\/en\/lot\/lot-5739396<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 61.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: C\u00e1ndido Portinari. \u00cdndia e Mulata<\/em>, 1934. Oil on canvas, 72 x 50 cm. Private Collection, Brazil. Accessed from Proa Foundation,\u00a0http:\/\/www.proa.org\/esp\/exhibicion-proa-exposicion-portinari-obras.php<\/a><\/span>
Right: C\u00e1ndido Portinari. Mesti\u00e7o, <\/em>1934. Oil on canvas, 65.5 x 81 cm. Pinacoteca\u00a0do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo.\u00a0<\/span>Accessed from Google Arts and Cultures, https:\/\/artsandculture.google.com\/asset\/mestizo-man\/BAFftYzvIr7UYg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 62.<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0Minga-Minga, 1904.\u00a0Galer\u00eda de Ladrones Conocidos<\/em>. Centro de Estudios Hist\u00f3rico Policiales \u201cFrancisco Romay,\u201d Polic\u00eda Federal Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1904. Accessed from\u00a0Galeano. “Travelling Criminals and Transnational Police Cooperation in South America, 1890-1920.” In Voices of Crime: Constructing and Contesting Social Control in Modern Latin America<\/em>, edited by Luz E. Huertas, Bonnie A. Lucero, and Gregory J. Swedberg (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016):\u00a023.\u00a0https:\/\/books.google.es\/books?id=rIMnDQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 63.<\/span><\/strong> Alberto Henschel. Portrait-Cafuza<\/em>, c.1869. 9 x 5,7 cm, albumina\/silver. Leibniz-Institut fuer Laenderkunde, Leipzig\/ Instituto Moreira Salles. Accessed from Brasiliana Fotogr\u00e1fica, http:\/\/brasilianafotografica.bn.br\/brasiliana\/handle\/20.500.12156.1\/4512<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 64. <\/span><\/strong>Roquette-Pinto. Photograph of a \u2018Cafuzo\u2019 (1929). Accessed from Sebasti\u00e3o Vanderlei de Souza. \u201cRetratos da na\u00e7\u00e3o: os \u2018tipos antropologicos\u2019 do Brasil nos estudos do Edgard Roquette-Pinto, 1910-1920.\u201d Boletim do Museo Paraense Em\u00edlio Goeldi. Ci\u00eancias Humanas<\/em> 7, no. 3 (2012): 652, https:\/\/www.scielo.br\/pdf\/bgoeldi\/v7n3\/a03v7n3.pdf<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 65. <\/span><\/strong>Press clipping showing Maruja Mallo\u2019s Head of Black Woman <\/em>and Vida vibrante<\/em> [Vibrant Life] in La Prensa,<\/em> Buenos Aires, November 14, 1948, with the occasion of Mallo\u2019s exhibition at Carstairs Gallery in New York that year. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185113132872\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 66.
<\/span><\/strong>Left: Maruja Mallo. Young Black Woman<\/em>, 1948. See figure 13.
Right:\u00a0Illustration of Codiaeum Irregulare<\/em>, included in E.J. Lowe’s\u00a0Les plantes a feuillage color\u00e9: histoire, description, culture, emploi des esp\u00e8ces les plus remarquables pour la d\u00e9coration des parcs, jardins, serres, appartements pr\u00e9c\u00e9d\u00e9 d’une introduction par Charles Naudin<\/em>\u00a0(Paris: Rothschild,1867-1870): plate XLVIII. Accessed from Biodiversity Heritage Library, https:\/\/www.biodiversitylibrary.org\/page\/16481857#page\/298\/mode\/1up<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 67<\/strong>.
Left:\u00a0Maruja Mallo,\u00a0Polynesia<\/em>\u00a0(profile, 1951). See figure 10.
Right:\u00a0Alberto Henschel.\u00a0Mo\u00e7a-Cafuza<\/em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong><\/span>(cropped), c.1869. Albumina\/silver, 9 x 5.7 cm. Leibniz-Institut fuer Laenderkunde, Leipzig\/ Instituto Moreira Salles. Accessed from Brasiliana Fotogr\u00e1fica,<\/span>\u00a0http:\/\/brasilianafotografica.bn.br\/brasiliana\/handle\/20.500.12156.1\/4511<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 68.<\/span><\/strong> Maruja Mallo. Man and Fish<\/em>, in the artist’s Notebook of Galicia, 1936. Pencil on paper, 21 x 26 cm. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/506232814367000363\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 69. <\/span><\/strong>Maruja Mallo. Armon\u00edas pl\u00e1sticas<\/em>. Mural paintings for Los \u00c1ngeles Movie Theatre, right panel, Buenos Aires, 1945 (destroyed at the beggining of the 1980s). Accessed from Totum Revolutum<\/em>, a blog by Olga Cabrinety,\u00a0https:\/\/olga-totumrevolutum.blogspot.com\/2017\/05\/maruja-mallo-o-la-particular.html<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 70.<\/span><\/strong>
Left: Cover of Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos. La raza c\u00f3smica: misi\u00f3n de la raza iberoamericana <\/em>(Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librer\u00eda, 1925). Accessed from http:\/\/www.filosofia.org\/aut\/001\/razacos.htm<\/a><\/span>
Right: Portrait of Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos (cropped), photographed by Harris & Ewing. Accessed from Wikipedia, https:\/\/es.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archivo:Jose_Vasconcelos_(cropped).jpg<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 71.<\/strong> <\/span>Maruja Mallo. 5 razas<\/em> [5 races], c. 1957. Ink and color pencils on paper, 16 x 22 cm Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185115740866\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 72<\/strong>. Maruja Mallo.\u00a0COLOR 5= 25 COMB= \u201cRAZ,\u201d\u00a0<\/i>December 22, 1957. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from\u00a0Fernando Huici March and Juan P\u00e9rez de Ayala eds.,\u00a0Maruja Mallo,\u00a0<\/em>vol.1 (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, Ministerio de Cultura, Fundaci\u00f3n Caixa Galicia, 2009): 210.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 73.<\/strong> <\/span>Maruja Mallo as a drawing teacher in Ar\u00e9valo, Spain, in 1933. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accesed from Maruja Mallo Official Pinterest, https:\/\/www.pinterest.es\/pin\/632826185114692423\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 74.<\/strong><\/span> Maruja Mallo.\u00a0La Verbena<\/em>\u00a0[The Street Fair], 1927. Oil on canvas,\u00a0119 x 165 cm. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sof\u00eda.\u00a0\u00a9 Maruja Mallo. Accessed from the MNCARS\u2019s website: https:\/\/www.museoreinasofia.es\/en\/collection\/artwork\/verbena-fair<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 75.<\/strong><\/span> Maruja Mallo (left) and Josefina Carabias (right) with Mallo\u2019s painting\u00a0Antro de f\u00f3siles<\/em>,<\/em>\u00a0from her series\u00a0Cloacas y Campanarios <\/em>[Sewers and Bell Towers], 1931. Accessed from Tal d\u00eda como hoy. Mujeres del Arte<\/em>, a project by Diana Larrea, https:\/\/taldiacomohoy.es\/maruja-mallo-1902-1995\/#jp-carousel-490<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 76.<\/strong>\u00a0<\/span>Maruja Mallo in her studio\u00a0in Madrid, surrounded by her artworks. Photo by Vicente Moreno, 1936. Archivo Moreno. Fototeca del Instituto del Patrimonio Cultural de Espa\u00f1a, Ministerio de Educaci\u00f3n, Cultura y Deporte. Accessed from Tal d\u00eda como hoy. Mujeres del Arte<\/em>, a project by Diana Larrea, https:\/\/taldiacomohoy.es\/maruja-mallo-1902-1995\/#jp-carousel-488<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 77.<\/strong><\/span>\u00a0Maruja Mallo with the complete series of paintings L<\/em>a Religi\u00f3n del Trabajo<\/em>\u00a0[The Religion of Work, 1937-1939] in her studio in Buenos Aires, c. 1942. Archivo Maruja Mallo. Accessed from Maruja Mallo Official Facebook page:\u00a0https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/MarujaMalloOficial\/photos\/a.760891874088881\/760891750755560<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Figure 78.\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>Maruja Mallo on a bike in Punta del Este (Uruguay), c. 1940.\u00a017,7 x 12,6 cm.\u00a0Residencia de Estudiantes, Madrid. Accessed from\u00a0La sombra vencida 1910-2010 <\/em>[online exhibition, Biblioteca Nacional de Espa\u00f1a],\u00a0http:\/\/www.bne.es\/es\/Micrositios\/Exposiciones\/miguel_hernandez\/Exposicion\/Seccion2\/Obra53.html?origen=galeria<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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