Korean folk religion shares many similarities with the folk beliefs of Northern China, as they both are heavily influenced by orthodox religions: Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism, while influencing those religions at the same time. Although seemingly very different, the paper god Dimu (Mother Kshitigarbha) and the Korean hanging scroll painting Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha (Savior of Creatures both in Heaven and Hell) in fact depict the same subject—Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha and the Ten Kings of Hell, a popular religious image that combines Buddhism and folk belief.

Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha is known in Buddhism for his vow of not achieving Buddhahood until the hell is empty. As a result, in both Chinese and Korean folk religions, Ksitigarbha is worshiped as the deity in charge of the hells and the guardian of the deceased. Ten Kings of Hells derives from the Hindu deity Yama, the god of death and underworld, which was later adapted into Buddhism as the judge of the dead. As Buddhism was introduced into China and later spread into Korea, the Buddhist deity was merged with folk legends and became the Ten Kings of Hell, who, especially in popular literatures from Ming (1368 CE-1644 CE) and Qing dynasty (1644 CE-1912 CE) in China, approximately the same period as the Joseon dynasty (1392 CE-1897 CE) in Korea, were the mirrored images of judges and officials of the living world.[1]

The paper god Dimu depicts a simplified representation of the judicial system of the underworld, with the Bodhisattva, represented as a woman, at the center and the Ten Kings of Hell surrounding the Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva is exaggerated in size as a way to emphasize the hierarchy. The figures around the Bodhisattva are the Kings of Hell (In this case, there are only nine figures, likely because the Bodhisattva, sometimes called “King Ksitigarbha,” is also counted as one of the kings), all depicted as elite male, marked by their headdresses. The Bodhisattva, wearing a lotus-shape hat commonly worn by Buddhist monks, is holding a staff, likely inspired by the staff used by monks, with the a round ornament on the top, which is believed to be the all-seeing mirror in folk legends, representing the Bodhisattva’s status as the overseer of the underworld.

Ninth of the Ten Kings of Hell. Ink and color on silk, 144.8×121.8 cm. Joseon Dynasty, Korea. National Museum of Korea.

Although more elaborated and detailed, the Korean painting Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha (Savior of Creatures both in Heaven and Hell) shows a scene very similar to the Chinese paper god. The Bodhisattva is sitting on a lotus, surrounded by immortal beings of heaven and hell. Although not as exaggerated, the Bodhisattva is also slightly larger in size than the surrounding figures and is further emphasized by the halo behind his back. Instead of the mirror, the Bodhisattva in the Korean painting is holding an actual monk’s staff, which puts more emphasis on his Buddhist identity. However, in the front two rows on both sides of the Bodhisattva, there are figures with similar but more elaborated headdresses than those in the paper god. They are likely the Ten Kings of Hell as well, since headdresses of the same shape can be found in other Korean variations of the Ten Kings of Hell. And like the paper god, there are nine instead of ten kings present. However, at the very front on the right, there is an additional figure—a Buddhist monk. The identity of the monk is unknown, but his presence at the very front of the scene puts an emphasis on the Buddhist nature of this work, despite all the elements of folk beliefs.

 

[1] Li Fengming. “Projection of the Law: Judicial System of the Underworld in Ming and Qing Novels.” Journal of Chinese Culture, No. 4 (2007): 98.