[{"id":307,"date":"2021-03-01T21:24:53","date_gmt":"2021-03-01T21:24:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=307"},"modified":"2021-08-04T21:43:48","modified_gmt":"2021-08-04T21:43:48","slug":"welcome","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/","title":{"rendered":"Welcome"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h3 style=\"text-align: center\">Kate Hatcher<\/h3>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Frederic Leighton&#8217;s <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>: A Renaissance for Victorian Britain<\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div style=' margin-top:30px; margin-bottom:30px;'  class='hr hr-custom hr-center hr-icon-yes '><span class='hr-inner   inner-border-av-border-thin' style=' width:50px; border-color:#000000;' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><span class='av-seperator-icon' style='color:#990f13;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue8bf' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello'><\/span><span class='hr-inner   inner-border-av-border-thin' style=' width:50px; border-color:#000000;' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_two_third  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><div class='avia-image-container  av-styling- av-hover-grow noHover  av-overlay-on-hover  avia-align-center '  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"  ><div class='avia-image-container-inner'><div class='av-image-caption-overlay'><div class='av-caption-image-overlay-bg' style='opacity:0.3; background-color:#000000; '><\/div><div class='av-image-caption-overlay-position'><div class='av-image-caption-overlay-center' style='color:#ffffff; '><p>Frederic Leighton, Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, 1853-5, oil on canvas, 87 x 205 in, National Gallery, London.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><img class='avia_image ' src='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621.jpg' alt='Frederic Leighton, Cimabue&#039;s Celebrated Madonna' title='Cimabue&#039;s Celebrated Madonna'   itemprop=\"thumbnailUrl\"  \/><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"flex_column av_one_third  av-animated-generic fade-in  flex_column_div   \" style='border-width:3px; border-color:#000000; border-style:solid; padding:2px; border-radius:0px; '><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '  style='font-size:29px; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\">Enter<\/a><\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section><\/div><\/p>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_full  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-width:3px; border-color:#000000; border-style:solid; border-radius:0px; '><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h3 style=\"text-align: center\">Master&#8217;s Capstone Project submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Art History. Chair: Dr. Juliet Bellow; Reader: Dr. Joanne Allen, American University, Washington, D.C.<\/h3>\n<\/div><\/section><br \/>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h3 style=\"text-align: center\">I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Juliet Bellow and Dr. Joanne Allen for their continued support, patience, and guidance throughout this process, and throughout my time at American University.<\/h3>\n<\/div><\/section><\/p><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-307","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/307","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=307"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/307\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=307"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":271,"date":"2021-02-25T02:20:06","date_gmt":"2021-02-25T02:20:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=271"},"modified":"2021-02-25T02:20:06","modified_gmt":"2021-02-25T02:20:06","slug":"acknowledgments","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/acknowledgments\/","title":{"rendered":"Acknowledgments"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Acknowledgments<\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Click here to add your own text<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-271","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/271","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=271"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/271\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=271"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":229,"date":"2021-02-24T20:57:48","date_gmt":"2021-02-24T20:57:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=229"},"modified":"2021-07-23T14:18:13","modified_gmt":"2021-07-23T14:18:13","slug":"cimabues-celebrated-madonna","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/","title":{"rendered":"Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><section class=\"av_textblock_section\">\n<div class=\"avia_textblock \">\n<h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Section 1:<\/h1>\n<h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Translating Vasari<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><!-- close content main div --><\/div><\/div><div id='av-tab-section-1' class='av-tab-section-container entry-content-wrapper main_color av-tab-no-transition av-tab-above-content  container_wrap fullsize'   ><div class='av-tab-section-outer-container'><div class='av-tab-section-tab-title-container avia-tab-title-padding-default ' ><a href='#' data-av-tab-section-title='1' class='av-section-tab-title av-active-tab-title av-tab-no-icon av-tab-no-image  '><span class='av-outer-tab-title'><span class='av-inner-tab-title'>Translating Vasari<\/span><\/span><span class='av-tab-arrow-container'><span><\/span><\/span><\/a><a href='#' data-av-tab-section-title='2' class='av-section-tab-title  av-tab-no-icon av-tab-no-image  '><span class='av-outer-tab-title'><span class='av-inner-tab-title'>The painting<\/span><\/span><span class='av-tab-arrow-container'><span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div><div class='av-tab-section-inner-container avia-section-default' style='width:200vw; left:0%;'><span class='av_prev_tab_section av_tab_navigation'><\/span><span class='av_next_tab_section av_tab_navigation'><\/span>\n<div data-av-tab-section-content=\"1\" class=\"av-layout-tab av-animation-delay-container av-active-tab-content __av_init_open   \" style='vertical-align:middle; ' ><div class='av-layout-tab-inner'><div class='container'><p><div class=\"flex_column av_one_full  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'   itemprop=\"text\" ><section class=\"av_textblock_section\">\n<div class=\"avia_textblock \">\n<blockquote>\n<p><em>\u00a0<\/em>&#8220;This work was an object of so much admiration to the people of that day that it was carried in solemn procession, with the sound of trumpets from his house to the church.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Vasari in <em>Lives of the Artists.<br \/>\n<\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Though <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> depicts an event from the 13<sup>th<\/sup> century, it was in its own way a very modern artwork. Leighton derived the subject from Vasari\u2019s <em>Lives<\/em>, which had just appeared in English translation four years prior. This translation, and Leighton\u2019s painting, both took part in a larger \u201crediscovery\u201d of the Italian Renaissance in Victorian Britain, and presented a modern-day, picturesque vision of what writers and artists believed the Renaissance to be. In its emulative properties and Leighton&#8217;s encapsulation of several ideals about the Renaissance, his work serves as a modern, British, visualization of this very impressionable time in history which garnered so much attention during the nineteenth century. While other artists also focused on conveying the romanticized nature of Italian society, Leighton harnessed some key traits of Venetian painting to set his work apart from similar movements like the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, who also based their practice on the appropriation of Medieval and Renaissance art.<\/p>\n<p>The work was only one of several paintings Leighton completed in the 1850s on subjects drawn from Vasari\u2019s text. In 1849, he produced <em>Cimabue Finding Giotto in the Fields of Florence<\/em>.<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a> In Vasari&#8217;s account of this narrative, he says:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>\u00a0&#8220;On the stones, the earth, or the sand, he drew pictures of things he saw or of his fancies. It chanced, one day, that Cimabue happened to see the boy drawing the picture of one of\u00a0 his sheep on a flat rock with a sharp piece of stone. Halting in astonishment, Cimabue asked Giotto if he would go with him to his house [..] Under Cimabue&#8217;s guidance and aided by his natural abilities, Giotto learned to draw accurately from life and thus put an end to the rude Greek [Byzantine] manner.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In 1852, he created <em>The Death of Brunelleschi<\/em> (Fig. 3) which depicts Renaissance architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who is pictured dying in his chair, surrounded by mourners. In Vasari&#8217;s &#8220;Life of Brunelleschi,&#8221; he notes that the architect died at sixty-nine years of age, &#8220;after having labored much and having earned an honored name on earth and repose in Heaven.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_381\" style=\"width: 228px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-381\" class=\"wp-image-381 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-21-at-4.08.38-PM-218x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"218\" height=\"300\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-381\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Frederic Leighton, Death of Brunelleschi, 1852.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>As these two paintings demonstrate, Leighton was drawn to narratives that celebrated the achievements and greatness of Italian artists, though text, <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>\u00a0 was clearly the most ambitious. The painting combines two separate episodes from Vasari\u2019s <em>Lives. <\/em>The first concerns the <em>Rucellai Madonna<\/em>&#8216;s public reception and procession through the streets of Florence. As Vasari says in the text:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>&#8220;This work was an object of so much admiration to the people that it was carried in solemn procession, with the sound of trumpets, from his house to the church.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The second anecdote, King Charles of Anjou&#8217;s visit to see the work. This segment reads:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>&#8220;There is a story, which may be read in certain records of old painters, that King Charles the elder of Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, as he passed through Florence, was shown the\u00a0 picture while Cimabue was painting it in a garden near the gate of San Pietro. It had not been seen by anyone. All the men and women of Florence crowded to see it with all possible demonstrations of delight.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In Leighton\u2019s rendering of the combined frieze-like scene, we see Cimabue and Giotto in the center, surrounded on either side with a group of people who accompany the painting to the church of Santa Maria Novella. On the left, a crowd joins together in celebration; children sprinkle flowers on the ground, and a young boy carries a processional cross to the church. There are figures dancing and playing music, moving along with the crowd and expressing the gaiety of the procession. Several religious figures also walk amidst the group, and the gesture of the young child on the top left echoes the blessing of Christ, which mirrors the child portrayed in the <em>Rucellai Madonna.<\/em> On the right, we see a grouping of figures who accompany the monumental painting; King Charles of Anjou can be seen on horseback entering the joyous scene. While the figures of Cimabue and Giotto appear quite pompous and stoic, their accompaniers are jubilant and embrace the sumptuous altarpiece painting and the festivities of a vibrant Florentine life. The figures walk in front of the large, striped wall of Santa Maria Novella. In the background on a hilltop, we see the Florentine church San Miniato. In its gaiety and homage paid to the <em>Rucellai Madonna, <\/em>Leighton&#8217;s painting perfectly captures the Florentines&#8217; quasi-religious devotion to art, and the Renaissance notion of artistic prestige. From the architectural details of the church in the background, to the smaller elements like the flowers strewn on the street, the ornate tapestry, to the careful attention paid to the folds of garments, Leighton&#8217;s scene is a laborious representation of a gilded past, and his marvelously-constructed scene is as if one is stepping into Vasari&#8217;s tale.<\/p>\n<p>Leighton&#8217;s work was one of sixteen works by various artists representing this particular anecdote from Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives. <\/em>As the <em>Whiteley Salon Index <\/em>has recorded, between 1808 and 1866 there were sixteen works created based on the narrative, including Nicholas-Antoine Taunay&#8217;s <em>Le Cimabu\u00e9 et Giotto <\/em>(1808) and F\u00f6rster&#8217;s <em>Cimabue discovering the Young Giotto <\/em>(1831-5).<a href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a> Leighton\u2019s use of Vasari\u2019s text as a source aligns with the trending representations from Vasari&#8217;s text. However, Leighton did not strictly adhere to Vasari&#8217;s narrative; he altered some details to emphasize the theme of artistic genealogy, and pay tribute to the Italian masters. Leighton included Cimabue&#8217;s pupil and successor Giotto, whose presence at the event was not mentioned in Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives. <\/em>Giotto&#8217;s placement beside Cimabue emphasizes the Vasarian idea of the Renaissance as a period when artists passed technical skills to their successors.<a href=\"#_ftn4\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[4]<\/a> Amplifying this theme, Leighton included several other Renaissance artists into the scene: Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Tafi, Nicola Pisano, Buffalmacco, and Simone Memmi. Leighton in fact copied this part of the composition from Andrea di Bonaiuoto&#8217;s 1368 fresco <em>Way of Salvation <\/em>(Fig. 4) from the church of Santa Maria Novella.<a href=\"#_ftn5\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[5]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>This group, the figures in which are now knowingly misattributed, stands directly behind the <em>Rucellai Madonna. <\/em>They can be identified from left to right as: a man wearing a tan head covering and green shirt, a dark-haired bushy-bearded man wearing a red cap, a man in a meditative state wearing a red coat with hands behind his coattail, and two figures wearing red behind them. It is significant in the way Leighton represents these artists; they all appear as pensive, intellectual figures in conversation who follow behind the esteemed artist and his painting.<\/p>\n<p>In another important departure from Vasari\u2019s text, Leighton included the Italian poet Dante, who can be seen leaning on the wall in the foreground. Dante&#8217;s addition seems intended to refer to the poet\u2019s <em>Purgatoria, <\/em>translated into English in 1802, which uses the relationship between the master Cimabue and his student prodigy Giotto as a symbol of the fleeting nature of artistic success.<a href=\"#_ftn6\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[6]<\/a> As the <em>Athen\u00e6um <\/em>noted of Dante&#8217;s presence, &#8220;Leaning against a wall stands Dante, cold and soured, dreaming of Hell, and fancying he sees a procession in an avenue of Purgatory[&#8230;]&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn7\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[7]<\/a> Dante&#8217;s placement, standing in front of the scene watching the procession, emphasizes and perhaps foreshadows Giotto&#8217;s succession of Cimabue he makes mention of in <em>Purgatoria, <\/em>which leads one to believe that Dante&#8217;s inclusion is a deliberate addition to the scene based on contemporaneous circulation of <em>Purgatoria. <\/em>The reference to Dante was surely calculated to reflect the self-consciousness of the Renaissance, and to appeal to widespread interest in the poet\u2019s works among the Victorian reading public.<\/p>\n<p>A final invented element in the scene is King Charles&#8217; presence, who is riding on horseback near the rear of the procession. While King Charles&#8217; passage through the streets of Florence and visitation to see the <em>Rucellai Madonna <\/em>was indeed included in <em>Lives, <\/em>Vasari does not mention his attendance at the procession itself. Perhaps his inclusion of the King within the scene was intended to highlight the significance of Cimabue and his acclaimed painting. The esteemed nature of the <em>Rucellai Madonna <\/em>in the painting highlights the significance of artistic production during the Renaissance. Patrons allowed for the vibrancy of Renaissance art, and were absolutely vital to the production of art during this time. This was a deliberate and effective pursuit for wealthy and powerful members of society to flaunt their splendor and prestige through displaying their wealth in such a manner. Evidence of patron-artist relations are often documented in contracts, in which the patron usually decided upon logistics such as cost of the work. Patrons often asserted their dominance and role in the process by suggesting specific themes or values in works that enhanced their status and power, such as inscriptions, coats of arms, or portraits. Since patrons were active in both religious as well as secular artistic production, they were an integral part of the formation of the Renaissance. Therefore, Victoria\u2019s purchase signified a deliberate stride to embody the intellect and high status of a Renaissance patron.<\/p>\n<p>Stylistically, <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>synthesized two different strains within Italian Renaissance painting, combining the Venetian emphasis on color and surface with the Florentine approach to line and drawing. While in Rome in 1853, presumably at work on the painting, Leighton wrote in a letter to his father:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>I was deeply impressed with the glorious works of art I saw in Venice and Florence and \u00a0 was particularly struck with the exquisitely elaborate finish of most of the leading works by whatsoever master; the highest possible finish combined with the greatest possible breadth and grandeur of disposition in the principal masses.<a href=\"#_ftn8\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[8]<\/a><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Leighton&#8217;s admiration of the finish and elaborate appearance of Venetian and Florentine works reveals itself in <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna. <\/em>Leighton&#8217;s studies in Italy while working on the painting were formative to his formulation of Vasari&#8217;s narrative. The work in itself depicts a vibrant spectrum of Florentine society and topography; Florentine painting being the derivation for the crispness of line and naturalistic modelling and shading of figures. His amalgamation of the Venetian and Florentine schools of painting perhaps was an effort to create his own blended style, merging vibrant color with crisp lines and details. However, it is not its Florentine characteristics that critics commented on, it is Venetian painting that is most observable.<\/p>\n<p>Leighton adapted stylistic characteristics from well-known Venetian \u201cmasters\u201d including Carpaccio, Bellini, and Veronese, who were known for their &#8220;tapestry-like density of design,&#8221; attention to architectural detail and accuracy, vibrant brushwork, richness of texture and color, and complex, crowded compositions.<a href=\"#_ftn9\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[9]<\/a> More specifically, his composition alluded to works that visualized the pageantry of Venetian culture, such as Carpaccio&#8217;s <em>The Legend of St. Ursula <\/em>(1495; Fig. 5) and <em>The Miracle of the True Cross <\/em>(1496; Fig. 6), both of which he would have seen while working in Venice.<a href=\"#_ftn10\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[10]<\/a> What made Carpaccio&#8217;s works so celebrated were their seemingly factual replication of civic festivities. As Leighton made clear in the letter to his father, he took great note of the &#8220;disposition in the principal masses&#8221; which is evident in these two works, and is a central component of Venetian narrative painting. This trait is arguably the most evidently Venetian derivation in <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>in its celebratory nature of figures. The work exemplifies what Patricia Fortini Brown calls the &#8220;eyewitness style,&#8221; in which the artist conveys Venice&#8217;s daily civic and religious culture within a compressed narrative scene. &#8216;Istorias,&#8217; or accurate narrative paintings, were accorded documentary status and, Brown argues, were regarded as a record of events, rather than an artistic invention.<a href=\"#_ftn11\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[11]<\/a> Bellini&#8217;s 1496 painting <em>Procession in the Piazza San Marco <\/em>(Fig. 7), for example, depicts members of a confraternity in procession. In the center of the composition, we see the relic of the True Cross, said to have miraculous powers, being carried on a platform under a canopy, against the backdrop of bustling civic activities taking place in the square beyond.<a href=\"#_ftn12\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[12]<\/a> Leighton\u2019s composition is strikingly similar: he, too, portrays a procession in the foreground; a relic or important object in the center raised above; an everyday scene and a monumental architectural setting in the background.<\/p>\n<p>Leighton\u2019s composition also echoed panoramic paintings of modern subjects then popular with the British viewing public. William Powell Frith specialized in his genre; his 1854 work <em>Ramsgate Sands <\/em>(Fig. 8), which, like Leighton\u2019s, was purchased by Queen Victoria, depicts a seaside resort on the Kentish coast in England. The painting symbolized the modernity and leisure that were embraced during the Victorian era. In the work, some figures look out to the sea with monoculars, a group of children play in the background, a man in the center reads a newspaper, a trio of girls in the foreground play in the sand, some wade in the tide, and some simply relax on the shore. Not only does the work convey a popular retreat made by the Victorian working class, but it also represents the advancements of the Victorian age; Ramsgate was newly accessible to travelers due to the developments of the British Railway system.<a href=\"#_ftn13\" name=\"_ftnref13\">[13]<\/a> It was a huge public success, and in 1854, the <em>Art Journal <\/em>predicted that <em>Ramsgate Sands <\/em>would become valuable &#8220;as a memento of the habits and manners of the English &#8216;at the seaside&#8217; in the middle of the nineteenth century.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn14\" name=\"_ftnref14\">[14]<\/a> Although greatly different in content, many compositional and stylistic elements of <em>Ramsgate Sands <\/em>are quite similar to <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna; <\/em>the architectural backdrop, the crowding of figures in the foreground, the representation of mass joyous disposition, and the liveliness of the scene. Additionally, both paintings represented Victoria&#8217;s admiration for descriptive, anecdotal scenes. Seeing how popular <em>Ramsgate Sands <\/em>was with the public, Leighton created <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>drawing upon the contemporaneously popular Renaissance, to draw mass appeal and become a memento of the Victorian age. The two works were two distinctively self-reflective representations of Victorian interests. The interest in the Renaissance was a markedly Victorian phenomenon, which Leighton borrowed and made his own through his narrative adaptations.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_385\" style=\"width: 1510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-385\" class=\"wp-image-385 size-featured_large\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/07\/Ramsgate_Sands-1500x630.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"1500\" height=\"630\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-385\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">William Powell Frith, Ramsgate Sands<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although the subject matter of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was drawn from the past, the work was topical to British society in its references to Vasari and the rise of interest in Venetian painting, therefore appealing to modern viewers. The primary reason for <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>I believe, was to attract buyers by directly emulating Venetian painting. Representing the newly translated <em>Lives of the Artists<\/em>, it visualized several ideals about Italian art and culture made visible by the Victorians. Additionally, Leighton&#8217;s amendments and inaccuracies from Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives <\/em>were efforts to garner interest and attention for himself. <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was a pageant and celebration of Florentine life, Venetian painting, and is a sentimentalized perception of Renaissance Italy.<a href=\"#_ftn15\" name=\"_ftnref15\">[15]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_full flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first avia-builder-el-3 el_after_av_textblock el_before_av_font_icon column-top-margin\"><\/div>\n<\/div><\/section><br \/>\n<div  data-size='large'  data-lightbox_size='large'  data-animation='slide'  data-ids='258,257'  data-video_counter='0'  data-autoplay='false'  data-bg_slider='false'  data-slide_height=''  data-handle='av_slideshow'  data-interval='5'  data-class=''  data-css_id=''  data-scroll_down=''  data-control_layout='av-control-default'  data-custom_markup=''  data-perma_caption=''  data-autoplay_stopper=''  data-image_attachment=''  data-min_height='0px'  class='avia-slideshow avia-slideshow-1  av-control-default av-default-height-applied avia-slideshow-large av_slideshow  avia-slide-slider '  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\" ><ul class='avia-slideshow-inner' style='padding-bottom: 48.828125%;'><li  class=' slide-1 ' ><div data-rel='slideshow-1' class='avia-slide-wrap'  ><img src='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/Screen-Shot-2021-02-24-at-10.41.43-AM-1024x500.png' width='1024' height='500' title='Screen Shot 2021-02-24 at 10.41.43 AM' alt=''  itemprop=\"thumbnailUrl\"   \/><\/div><\/li><li  class=' slide-2 ' ><div data-rel='slideshow-1' class='avia-slide-wrap'  ><img src='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/Screen-Shot-2021-02-24-at-10.38.08-AM-1024x482.png' width='1024' height='482' title='Screen Shot 2021-02-24 at 10.38.08 AM' alt=''  itemprop=\"thumbnailUrl\"   \/><\/div><\/li><\/ul><div class='avia-slideshow-arrows avia-slideshow-controls'><a href='#prev' class='prev-slide' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue87c' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello'>Previous<\/a><a href='#next' class='next-slide' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue87d' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello'>Next<\/a><\/div><div class='avia-slideshow-dots avia-slideshow-controls'><a href='#1' class='goto-slide active' >1<\/a><a href='#2' class='goto-slide ' >2<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/p><\/div><div style=' margin-top:30px; margin-bottom:30px;'  class='hr hr-custom hr-center hr-icon-yes '><span class='hr-inner   inner-border-av-border-thin' style=' width:50px; border-color:#96181c;' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><span class='av-seperator-icon' style='color:#000000;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue8bf' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello'><\/span><span class='hr-inner   inner-border-av-border-thin' style=' width:50px; border-color:#96181c;' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div><br \/>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p>The fascination with Italy is noticeably present in <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>, and reflects his artistic training. Born in 1830, Leighton was devoutly and ambitiously devoted to academic art and influenced by the Italian masters and German Nazarene art throughout the span of his life. In his formative years, he extensively trained in Berlin, Paris, and parts of Italy, the presence of this training evident in many of his works. The \u201cspirit and sentiment of Italy\u201d pervaded Leighton\u2019s art, especially in the formal training of his youth.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftn8\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[8]<\/a> According to Leighton\u2019s primary biographer, Emilie Barrington, Italy was a \u201cplayground of fascination\u201d for Leighton, this idea carried with him throughout his life.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftn9\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[9]<\/a> Because of Leighton\u2019s knowledge of the set of ideals associated with the Renaissance due to the texts being circulated during this period and the acquisition of Renaissance works by the National Gallery, his choice of narratives from Vasari for his first major painting was a conscious one. Ideals of the Renaissance and the imagined past were also present in France in the nineteenth century; <em>Lives of the Artists <\/em>was translated into French in 1805, and artists such as Ingres and G\u00e9rome began representing scenes from the text. The English translation was made available by Mrs. Jonathan Foster in 1850-1, and no other subject would have been more fitting for Leighton\u2019s first major work than to draw on the notable text. and would have been widely available to the public in English by the nineteenth century, and a source of inspiration for many of Leighton\u2019s contemporaries. Such ideals of humanism present in Leighton\u2019s <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>were concurrent with these beliefs regarding the Renaissance as the pinnacle of fine arts and culture, made visible by Ruskin and others. The incorporation of a narrative from the Renaissance allowed Leighton to critique the art of his own time by using the pictorial conventions of the Italian masters.<\/p>\n<p>The grandeur and carefully constructed composition of <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>is visually reminiscent of Renaissance imagery and coloring. With so many figures and details, <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> has the potential to appear frieze-like and stagnant. Rather, it moves across the canvas in a vibrant and lively manner, the grandeur and careful composition reminiscent of Renaissance imagery. The crowding and commotion of figures brings life to <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna. <\/em>In fact, Leighton was influenced by processional paintings of Carpaccio and Gentile Bellini, and the richness of texture and color in his work stemmed from Venetian inspiration.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftn10\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[10]<\/a> From the painting, we can gather the celebratory and festive manner of the event, but also the importance of the <em>Rucellai Madonna<\/em>; its religious significance inferred by the presence of a bishop and other clergymen standing to the left of the composition, who seem to lead the crowd to the church ahead. The public enthusiasm for the <em>Rucellai Madonna, <\/em>seen in Leighton\u2019s representation of the scene, was described in Emilie Barrington\u2019s book <em>The Life, Letters and Work of Frederic Leighton. <\/em>Here she says, \u201cThe fact of his picture of the Madonna causing so much public enthusiasm was in itself a glorification of art; a witness that in the integral feelings of these Italians such enthusiasm for art could be excited in all classes of people.\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftn11\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[11]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>While British art in the mid-nineteenth-century was dominated primarily by portraiture, images of British history, landscape painting, and the early work of the Pre-Raphaelite-Brotherhood, I believe Leighton sought to reintroduce England to the height of great art and culture. <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was a pageant and celebration of Florentine life, as well as a tribute to beauty and the sentimentalized perceptions of Renaissance Italy.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftn12\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[12]<\/a> Scholars have touched on the reasoning behind Leighton\u2019s appropriation of the Old Masters and Renaissance art early in his career: to educate public tastes, elevate the status of British art and to embody the status of the Italian artists he admired. While I am interested in Leighton\u2019s stylistic appropriation of Renaissance painting, I also wish to examine the reasons behind this appropriation. His borrowing of the style and iconography of the Renaissance marks his desire to establish himself as a young emerging artist, by paying tribute to the pinnacle of fine art and culture. The Italian Renaissance offered Leighton inspiration that Victorian England could not, especially at the start of his career as an artist.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div data-av-tab-section-content=\"2\" class=\"av-layout-tab av-animation-delay-container    \" style='vertical-align:top; ' ><div class='av-layout-tab-inner'><div class='container'><p><div class='av-hotspot-image-container avia_animate_when_almost_visible  avia_animated_image avia_animate_when_almost_visible fade-in av-hotspot-blank av-mobile-fallback-active    av-non-fullwidth-hotspot-image '  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/ImageObject\"  ><div class='av-hotspot-container'><div class='av-hotspot-container-inner-cell'><div class='av-hotspot-container-inner-wrap'><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;In the center of the composition walks Cimabue, holding the hand of a young Giotto as they walk before the &lt;em&gt;Rucellai Madonna. &lt;\/em&gt;He is crowned with a laurel wreath, and dressed in white, separating him from the rest of the celebratory composition.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 63.8%; left: 47.5%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>1<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;Holding Cimabue&#8217;s hand is his successor, Giotto.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 70.7%; left: 52.1%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>2<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;This is Cimabue&#8217;s painting the &lt;em&gt;Rucellai Madonna, &lt;\/em&gt;created in 1286. While unknown to Vasari at the time, the painting was actually later attributed to Duccio. Leighton&#8217;s choice of placing the painting at an angle so that it is not entirely visible is an interesting one. Rather, Leighton chose to focus his attention on the celebratory aspects of the painting&#8217;s journey to the Santa Maria Novella.&lt;\/p&gt;\n&lt;div id=&quot;attachment_292&quot; style=&quot;width: 710px&quot; class=&quot;wp-caption aligncenter&quot;&gt;&lt;img aria-describedby=&quot;caption-attachment-292&quot; class=&quot;size-featured_large wp-image-292&quot; src=&quot;https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-700x630.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;700&quot; height=&quot;630&quot; \/&gt;&lt;p id=&quot;caption-attachment-292&quot; class=&quot;wp-caption-text&quot;&gt;Rucellai Madonna&lt;\/p&gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\n' style='top: 11.8%; left: 61.1%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>3<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;div id=&quot;attachment_297&quot; style=&quot;width: 960px&quot; class=&quot;wp-caption aligncenter&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Original-Sketch-of-Complete-Design-for-Cimabues-Madonna-Drawn-in-1853-Leighton-House-Collection.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;img aria-describedby=&quot;caption-attachment-297&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-297 size-full&quot; src=&quot;..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Original-Sketch-of-Complete-Design-for-Cimabues-Madonna-Drawn-in-1853-Leighton-House-Collection.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;950&quot; height=&quot;399&quot; \/&gt;&lt;\/a&gt;&lt;p id=&quot;caption-attachment-297&quot; class=&quot;wp-caption-text&quot;&gt;Preparatory drawing for the painting.&lt;\/p&gt;&lt;\/div&gt;\n&lt;p&gt;One of the most notable traits about this painting is its complexity, and scale. We can see these things were important to Leighton, from a preparatory drawing he had done of the composition.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 45.2%; left: 57.3%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>4<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;&lt;img class=&quot;aligncenter size-full wp-image-203&quot; src=&quot;..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/Screen-Shot-2021-02-22-at-5.41.56-PM.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; height=&quot;144&quot; \/&gt; &lt;img class=&quot;aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-294&quot; src=&quot;..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/San-Miniato-1500x630.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;1500&quot; height=&quot;630&quot; \/&gt;In the distance, we can see the Florentine church of San Miniato, surrounded by Cyprus trees.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 31.3%; left: 70.6%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>5<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;There are numerous religious figures in the painting, such as this one, who engages with the viewer and leads the procession to the church. From his appearance, we can gather that he is Priest or religious leader, and is embarking on the painting&#8217;s procession to the church of Santa Maria Novella, where it would be hung.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 46.3%; left: 10.5%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>6<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;Another religious figure, this child engages with the viewer, and carries a processional cross.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 73.5%; left: 8.4%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>7<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;This baby&#8217;s pose echoes the blessing pose of Christ, and appears to lead the procession to the Church of Santa Maria Novella.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 43.2%; left: 1.6%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>8<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;The figure of this woman was studied by Leighton prior to this painting, and can be seen in a preparatory drawing of his, dated ______. &lt;img class=&quot;aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-296&quot; src=&quot;https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Study-of-Head-of-Woman-at-Windo-in-Cimabues-Madonna-Leighton-House-Collection-821x630.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;821&quot; height=&quot;630&quot; \/&gt;&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 11.7%; left: 19.1%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>9<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;Surrounding the &lt;em&gt;Rucellai Madonna &lt;\/em&gt;is a group of Florentine artists, believed by Leighton to be Andrea Tafi, Nicola Pisano, Buffalmacco, Simone Memmi, and Arnolfo de Lapo. While scholars have a difficult time pinpointing who is who in this image, we do know that Leighton had created preparatory drawings on these figures, based on a fresco in Capella Spagnola by Taddeo Gaddi. &lt;img class=&quot;aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-291&quot; src=&quot;..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/imagep138-716x630.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; width=&quot;716&quot; height=&quot;630&quot; \/&gt;&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 47.2%; left: 80.5%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>10<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;This is King Charles of Anjou, riding on horseback. His presence in this specific procession was not mentioned in Vasari&#8217;s &lt;em&gt;Lives. &lt;\/em&gt;However, it is known that the King visited the painting.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 38.3%; left: 91.6%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>11<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;Dante Alighieri, in the &lt;em&gt;Purgatoria, &lt;\/em&gt;had depicted through the mouth of Oderisi, Cimabue and Giotto as the reformers of painting after the Dark Ages. He is leaning near the outskirts of the composition, who watches his own scene unfold. In the text, he says, &#8220;In painting Cimabue thought to hold the field and now Giotto has the cry, so that the other&#8217;s fame is dim.&#8221;&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 64.7%; left: 92.9%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>12<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;The striped wall behind the figures is reminiscent of the architecture of Santa Maria Novella, which would be the final destination for this procession. Leighton&#8217;s attention to architectural detail was admired by critics such as John Ruskin.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 44.9%; left: 50%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>13<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;We can gather the festive nature of the procession through elements such as these figures playing musical instruments.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 51%; left: 35.6%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>14<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip-position='top' data-avia-tooltip-alignment='left' data-avia-tooltip-class='av-tt-xlarge-width av-tt-pos-above av-tt-align-left  av-mobile-fallback-active  transparent_dark av-tt-hotspot' data-avia-tooltip='&lt;p&gt;This figure is thought of to be a caricatured portrait of Leighton, himself.&lt;\/p&gt;\n' style='top: 56.5%; left: 54.7%; '><div class='av-image-hotspot_inner' style=' '>15<\/div><div class='av-image-hotspot-pulse' ><\/div><\/div><img class='avia_image ' src='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621.jpg' alt='Frederic Leighton, Cimabue&#039;s Celebrated Madonna' title='Cimabue&#039;s Celebrated Madonna'   itemprop=\"thumbnailUrl\"  \/><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>1<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nIn the center of the composition walks Cimabue, holding the hand of a young Giotto as they walk before the <em>Rucellai Madonna. <\/em>He is crowned with a laurel wreath, and dressed in white, separating him from the rest of the celebratory composition.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>2<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nHolding Cimabue&#8217;s hand is his successor, Giotto.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>3<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThis is Cimabue&#8217;s painting the <em>Rucellai Madonna, <\/em>created in 1286. While unknown to Vasari at the time, the painting was actually later attributed to Duccio. Leighton&#8217;s choice of placing the painting at an angle so that it is not entirely visible is an interesting one. Rather, Leighton chose to focus his attention on the celebratory aspects of the painting&#8217;s journey to the Santa Maria Novella.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_292\" style=\"width: 710px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-292\" class=\"size-featured_large wp-image-292\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-700x630.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"700\" height=\"630\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-292\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rucellai Madonna<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>4<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><div id=\"attachment_297\" style=\"width: 960px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Original-Sketch-of-Complete-Design-for-Cimabues-Madonna-Drawn-in-1853-Leighton-House-Collection.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-297\" class=\"wp-image-297 size-full\" src=\"..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Original-Sketch-of-Complete-Design-for-Cimabues-Madonna-Drawn-in-1853-Leighton-House-Collection.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"950\" height=\"399\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-297\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Preparatory drawing for the painting.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>One of the most notable traits about this painting is its complexity, and scale. We can see these things were important to Leighton, from a preparatory drawing he had done of the composition.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>5<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-203\" src=\"..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/Screen-Shot-2021-02-22-at-5.41.56-PM.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"180\" height=\"144\" \/> <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-294\" src=\"..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/San-Miniato-1500x630.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"1500\" height=\"630\" \/>In the distance, we can see the Florentine church of San Miniato, surrounded by Cyprus trees.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>6<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThere are numerous religious figures in the painting, such as this one, who engages with the viewer and leads the procession to the church. From his appearance, we can gather that he is Priest or religious leader, and is embarking on the painting&#8217;s procession to the church of Santa Maria Novella, where it would be hung.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>7<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nAnother religious figure, this child engages with the viewer, and carries a processional cross.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>8<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThis baby&#8217;s pose echoes the blessing pose of Christ, and appears to lead the procession to the Church of Santa Maria Novella.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>9<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThe figure of this woman was studied by Leighton prior to this painting, and can be seen in a preparatory drawing of his, dated ______. <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-296\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/Study-of-Head-of-Woman-at-Windo-in-Cimabues-Madonna-Leighton-House-Collection-821x630.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"821\" height=\"630\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>10<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nSurrounding the <em>Rucellai Madonna <\/em>is a group of Florentine artists, believed by Leighton to be Andrea Tafi, Nicola Pisano, Buffalmacco, Simone Memmi, and Arnolfo de Lapo. While scholars have a difficult time pinpointing who is who in this image, we do know that Leighton had created preparatory drawings on these figures, based on a fresco in Capella Spagnola by Taddeo Gaddi. <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-featured_large wp-image-291\" src=\"..\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/imagep138-716x630.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"716\" height=\"630\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>11<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThis is King Charles of Anjou, riding on horseback. His presence in this specific procession was not mentioned in Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives. <\/em>However, it is known that the King visited the painting.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>12<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nDante Alighieri, in the <em>Purgatoria, <\/em>had depicted through the mouth of Oderisi, Cimabue and Giotto as the reformers of painting after the Dark Ages. He is leaning near the outskirts of the composition, who watches his own scene unfold. In the text, he says, &#8220;In painting Cimabue thought to hold the field and now Giotto has the cry, so that the other&#8217;s fame is dim.&#8221;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>13<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThe striped wall behind the figures is reminiscent of the architecture of Santa Maria Novella, which would be the final destination for this procession. Leighton&#8217;s attention to architectural detail was admired by critics such as John Ruskin.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>14<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nWe can gather the festive nature of the procession through elements such as these figures playing musical instruments.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip'><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-count'>15<div class='avia-arrow'><\/div><\/div><div class='av-hotspot-fallback-tooltip-inner clearfix'><p>\nThis figure is thought of to be a caricatured portrait of Leighton, himself.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><br \/>\n<span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nNext page&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-229","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/229","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=229"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/229\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=229"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":218,"date":"2021-02-23T00:38:26","date_gmt":"2021-02-23T00:38:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=218"},"modified":"2021-08-06T13:33:17","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T13:33:17","slug":"queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/","title":{"rendered":"Queen Victoria&#8217;s Purchase of the Painting"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#593510; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Section 3: Victoria and Albert&#8217;s <em>Cimabue<\/em><\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#5e2a0f; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><blockquote>\n<p>&#8220;There was a very big picture by a man called Leighton, his 1st attempt, at the age of 20&#8230; It is a beautiful painting, quite reminding one of a Paul Veronese, so bright and full of light. Albert was enchanted with it &#8212; so much so that he made me buy it. The young man&#8217;s father said that his future career in life would depend on the success of this picture.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[74]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>-Queen Victoria in her journal, 1855<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<div id=\"attachment_506\" style=\"width: 185px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-506\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-506\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-08-04-at-11.45.29-AM-175x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"175\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-08-04-at-11.45.29-AM-175x300.png 175w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-08-04-at-11.45.29-AM-412x705.png 412w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-08-04-at-11.45.29-AM.png 420w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 175px) 100vw, 175px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-506\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 11. Franz Winterhalter, Queen Victoria (1819-1901), 1843, oil on canvas, 107 x 63 in, Windsor Castle.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The timing of the royals\u2019 purchase\u2014in the wake of the Europe-wide revolutions of 1848\u2014is also crucial to understanding the political symbolism of this painting for them. In retrospect, we can see that the Victorian era was a period of relative peace and stability as well as economic prosperity. In the 1850s, though, it was not clear that this would be the case: the outbreak of revolution in France in February 1848 not only toppled the July Monarchy, but threatened the very institution of the monarchy. Inspired by France&#8217;s revolutionary demand for democracy, 1848 saw an outbreak of agitation and upheavals in several other European countries, including Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. In Germany, republicanism was inspired by the events in France as well as American democracy; there were copies of the United States Constitution to be found in bookstores, in the street, and in a book entitled <em>Das Staats Lexikon, <\/em>which contained essays on the Constitution.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[75]<\/a> \u00a0This German aim for democracy took a more violent turn, with antiestablishment forces gathering in protest in the streets. Similar democratic measures were taken in Switzerland, and a Swiss Constitution went into effect in 1848.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[76]<\/a> In Hungary, many sought for independence from Austrian absolutism, which resulted in a battle between Hungarian revolutionaries and the Austrian army.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[77]<\/a> \u00a0In Italy, Italian nationalists and intellectuals organized several revolts throughout the course of 1848 in opposition of the dominant Austrian Hapsburg rule.<\/p>\n<p>Though Victoria\u2019s reign remained intact, the spirit of 1848 deeply affected political sentiment within the United Kingdom. In the immediate aftermath of the February 1848 revolution, the <em>Illustrated London News <\/em>predicted that Britain would join the revolutionary cause, arguing that \u201cthe coercive system of government\u201d\u2014i.e., monarchy\u2014would be ended quietly in some places, and forcefully in others.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[78]<\/a> British writer Charles Greville emphasized the effect that the unrest in France would have on the rest of Europe, stating that &#8220;the whole world is influenced by all that is done in Paris.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[79]<\/a> A conservative Member of Parliament, Richard Monckton Milnes, also believed that the French democratic system would exercise a strong influence on Britain.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[80]<\/a> As he wrote in a letter to the Marquis of Lansdowne in 1849,<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;It is not likely, unless France should become the scene of misfortunes which we have no reason to anticipate, and which we should most seriously deplore, that the English people will remain unaffected by the extension to all citizens of political rights in a country with which we are physically so closely connected, and whose moral influences over other nations have always been remarkable: and for this we must be prepared.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[81]<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>While this did not come to pass, some small scale rebellions took place, including Chartist demonstrations in London in February and April of 1848.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[82]<\/a> Influenced by the French Revolutions of the previous half-century, Chartism was a working-class movement for parliamentary reform, which proposed a number of institutional political changes, such as universal suffrage and annually elected parliament members.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[83]<\/a> The Chartists openly opposed the monarchy and organized demonstrations against Victoria&#8217;s coronation and marriage.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[84]<\/a> Two years after 1848, revolution in Britain still seemed possible to the historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle, when he wrote that<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;\u2026universal democracy&#8230; has declared itself as the inevitable fact of the days in which we live&#8230; and here, in England, though we object to it resolutely in the form of street barricades and insurrectionary pikes, and decidedly will not open doors to it on those terms, the tramp of its million feet is in all streets and thoroughfares, the sound of its bewildered thousandfold voices in all writings and speakings, in all thinking and activities of men&#8230;&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[85]<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Though Carlyle assumed that violent unrest was anathema to the British, he believed that revolutionary ideals held wide appeal, and insinuated that democratic reform of some kind was inevitable.<\/p>\n<p>Multiple disruptive events also marked the first two decades of Victoria\u2019s reign. In Britain, the London Water Crises of 1831-2, 1848-49 and 1853-54 brought outbreaks of cholera, frequent water shortages, and discontent with London water supply companies.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref13\">[86]<\/a> The Irish Famine of 1845-52 strained the relationship between the British government and the Irish people, and led to Victoria&#8217;s unsavory nickname, &#8220;The Famine Queen.&#8221; A group of radical republicans, led by William Smith O&#8217;Brien, aimed to enflame revolution in Ireland after the British Parliament passed the \u201cTreason Felony Act\u201d in 1848, which was enacted to protect the Queen and the crown, and punished those who attempted to rebel. While not a large movement, the rebellion resulted in fatal shootings between police forces and Irish rebels. During this period, several territories within the British Empire also began to seek autonomy. In 1850, Britain granted Australia self-governing powers, as a result of demands for local self-governance. The New Zealand Wars of 1845-72, fought between British forces and indigenous Maori peoples, were caused by conflicts over land ownership, sovereignty, and resistance to British imperial expansion.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref14\">[87]<\/a> Similar struggles ensued in India between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in the tumultuous Anglo-Sikh Wars of 1845-46, 1848-49,1847-1850, 1857, and 1857-62. Initiated by the death of Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh, who had maintained a friendly relationship with the British, the East India Company took advantage of the power struggles following his death to enact a series of aggressive annexations throughout India.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref15\">[88]<\/a> The British officially declared war in 1845, and following the Second Anglo-Sikh War, in 1849, Britain annexed the Panjab state and maintained its authority and influence in India.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref16\">[89]<\/a> Another British imperial altercation of the nineteenth century was the Anglo-Afghan war of 1839-42, which began when the British Army strived to remove ruler Dost Mohammed Khan (1793-1842) and hand it over to Shah Shujah (1785-1842), who held a pro-British stance.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref17\">[90]<\/a> This change, along with British residence in the country, fueled resentment for the British in Afghanistan, and not long after, war had broken. Canada also took part in rebellions against British authority; in 1837-8, inspired by American democracy, Canadian revolutionaries resisted British control.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref18\">[91]<\/a> When we view these developments in totality, it is easy to see that Victoria\u2019s hold on power appeared far less secure in the 1850s than they do in retrospect.<\/p>\n<p>As a female monarch, moreover, Victoria had to address concerns about her own fitness to rule. In 1837, when she acceded to the throne as a young, unmarried woman, Lord John Russell, a member of her first cabinet, delivered in a speech in Stroud, England, in which he noted that<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;We have had glorious female reigns. Those of Elizabeth and Anne led to great [military] victories. Let us now hope that we are going to have a female reign illustrious in its deeds of peace&#8211;an Elizabeth without her tyranny, an Anne without her weakness.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[92]<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Russell&#8217;s statement encapsulated popular apprehensions about Victoria&#8217;s ability to lead the nation, even as he aimed to reassure his audience by allusion to her illustrious female predecessors. Skepticism about the young Queen\u2019s authority was arguably surpassed by suspicion of her German-born consort, Albert, who received a decidedly unfriendly reception by the English public after their marriage in 1840. Widespread anti-German sentiment, occasioned skepticism about his commitment to the nation and fears that his influence may thwart British influence abroad.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[93]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>In the face of this resistance, the royal couple showed themselves to be astute in the management of their public image. Victoria cultivated an image of herself as a dutiful wife and doting mother; not only did this image conform to contemporary ideals of bourgeois femininity, but it also supported her efforts to project an aura of stability onto her reign. Through the large number of representations of her that circulated in poems, prints, and songs, Victoria achieved celebrity status.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[94]<\/a> These images allowed for a widespread intimate feeling of connection with, and pride in, the fashionable young Queen. The periodical <em>Figaro in London <\/em>commented on this dynamic:<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;If it be true that &#8216;all the world&#8217;s a stage&#8217;, we suppose that Kings and Queens must be tip-top performers: stars engaged at heavy salaries, to play the leading business of this terrestrial hemisphere, Victoria has come out, in the character not only of a lady actress, but as a manageress on her own account&#8230;&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[95]<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>As this passage suggests, the British public was well aware of the machinations behind the image of the Queen and the royal family; <em>Figaro <\/em>parodied the excessive number of stories celebrating her virtue and charisma in their column &#8220;Queeniania.\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[96]<\/a> Similarly, the <em>Spectator <\/em>commented on her efforts to align herself more closely with the public through various civic and charitable activities, and made connections between the influence of the press and Victoria&#8217;s desire to occupy a position of a populist figurehead.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[97]<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-502\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"2000\" height=\"1579\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846.jpg 2000w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-300x237.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-1024x808.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-768x606.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-1536x1213.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-1500x1184.jpg 1500w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-705x557.jpg 705w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/royal-family-1846-450x355.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2000px) 100vw, 2000px\" \/> Figure 12. Franz Winterhalter, The Royal Famiily in 1846, oil on canvas, 98 x 125 in, Buckingham Palace.<\/p>\n<p>Victoria&#8217;s image was constructed not solely through her media representation, but also through portraits of herself she commissioned throughout her reign. Many of her early portraits represented the Queen as youthful, domestic, or having regal authority.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[98]<\/a> Concurrent with her interests in painting, she believed a good portrait to possess accurate detail and an enhancement of the depicted subject.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[99]<\/a> Because of her admiration for specificity in painting, most of the portraits she had painted bear strong narrative, scenic and pictorial properties. She was often pictured in a state of contemplation, demonstrating assuredness, drama, bourgeois values, domesticity, and tranquility. One such portrait exemplifies her desired public persona, Franz Xaver Winterhalter&#8217;s painting <em>Queen Victoria <\/em>(1843; Figure 11). In the portrait, Victoria stands in the center of the composition on a regal red carpet, in the background we see the corner of Buckingham Palace. She wears George IV&#8217;s Diamond Diadem and a necklace made from Turkish diamonds given by Sultan Mahm\u00fad in 1838. Beside her, we see the Imperial State crown and her scepter. Her stance is imposing and elegant as she looks intimidatingly towards the viewer. In her journal, she wrote that it &#8216;looked splendid,&#8217; and that it captured an impressive likeness, a trait she greatly admired in painting.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[100]<\/a> The work captures many qualities which would benefit her image: she looks assured, stoic and regal, and manifests the bourgeois tastes of the royals. Additionally, the work captures a sense of her efforts in creating friendly relations with other nations, demonstrated through her gifted necklace. Another work by Winterhalter, entitled <em>The Royal Family in 1846 <\/em>(Figure 12), presents Victoria as both sovereign and mother. In the work, she, Albert, and their five children sit in the center, in a setting similar to the single portrait: in a room with red carpeting in front of a blue sky. While the couple still appears serious and stately, the work emphasizes Victoria\u2019s role as nurturer to her family and, by extension, as a mother-figure for the British public.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to portrait commissions, Victoria and Albert engaged in a number of cultural activities that seem designed to cement their image as modern, enlightened monarchs. In the 1840s, Albert became president of the Royal Fine Arts Commission, which led to the redecoration of the rebuilt Houses of Parliament. In 1843, he was elected President of the Society of Arts, which prompted the creation of the Great Exhibition.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[101]<\/a> But his most ambitious project was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Prince Albert suggested that the Great Exhibition would be created for three reasons: exhibition, competition, encouragement.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[102]<\/a> The event was intended to spur interest in technical and industrial education; to promote free trade between European nations; to increase British nationalism, and to boost imperial self-confidence. Housed in the purpose-built Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, it displayed nearly 100,000 exhibits from around the world (Figure 13).<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[103]<\/a> Organized into four categories&#8211; Raw Materials, Machinery and Invention, Manufacture and Sculpture and Plastic Arts&#8211; half of the exhibition was devoted to Britain and half from countries in and outside of the British Empire. Notable objects from the British exhibits included iron ores, model homes, displays of industrial cotton production, porcelain, hydraulic presses, and fabrics. In the international displays, one could find exotic imperial objects such as woodcarvings from Greece, revolvers from the United States, jewelry from India, insects from New Zealand, and furs from Canada.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref13\">[104]<\/a> Albert&#8217;s focus on industrialism in Britain was part of an effort to avoid political upheaval in Britain; with an economic expansion in industry, more jobs would be created in Britain, allowing the working class to be integrated into the liberal economy.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref14\">[105]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>That the Great Exhibition was also intended to burnish the royal couple\u2019s reputation is borne out in their 1851 commission from Winterhalter of a family portrait entitled <em>The First of May 1851 <\/em>(Figure 14) to commemorate the birth of Prince Arthur, their third son, as well as the \u00a0inauguration of the Great Exhibition. The painting depicts Victoria, Albert, and Arthur against the backdrop of the Crystal Palace, toward which Albert looks longingly over his shoulder. The work communicates both the importance of royal lineage emphasized through Arthur, and the Exhibition as Albert&#8217;s greatest success. The painting also features several symbolic elements related to the Renaissance revival: the work compositionally resembles an Adoration of the Magi scene, and Arthur\u2019s illuminated crown recalls a halo. Both the Christological symbolism and the reference to Renaissance adoration paintings help to legitimize the royal family and to emphasize the stability of their reign.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><div id=\"attachment_503\" style=\"width: 990px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-503\" class=\"size-full wp-image-503\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"980\" height=\"692\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737.jpg 980w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737-768x542.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737-260x185.jpg 260w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737-705x498.jpg 705w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-interior-of-the-great-exhibition-at-the-crystal-palace-news-photo-3401233-1551289737-450x318.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 980px) 100vw, 980px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-503\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 13. The Great Exhibition, 1851.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><div id=\"attachment_504\" style=\"width: 748px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-504\" class=\"size-full wp-image-504\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-first-of-may-1851.jpgLarge.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"738\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-first-of-may-1851.jpgLarge.jpg 738w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-first-of-may-1851.jpgLarge-300x244.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-first-of-may-1851.jpgLarge-705x573.jpg 705w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/the-first-of-may-1851.jpgLarge-450x366.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 738px) 100vw, 738px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-504\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 14. Franz Winterhalter, The First of May, 1851, 1851, oil on canvas, 50.98 x 42 in, Royal Collection Trust.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#63390b; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Art collecting was another important way that Victoria and Albert communicated ideas about themselves to the public. We know much of Victoria&#8217;s own opinions about art due to her journal, which she kept from 1832 through 1901, and which is preserved in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle, where she often vividly described the works she acquired.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref15\">[106]<\/a> They were proud of their collecting habits, and even went as far as to exhibit their collection publicly.\u00a0 In 1855 the barrister and publisher Samuel Carter Hall obtained permission from the couple to publish engravings of selections from their art collection in the periodical <em>Art Union, <\/em>where two paintings and one sculpture were published each month.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref16\">[107]<\/a> Victoria also lent works from the collection to every Royal Academy exhibition from 1838 on, and to the Royal Society of Arts from 1851 on.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref17\">[108]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>The couple\u2019s purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>underscores their emphasis on the collection of Medieval and Renaissance works: of the approximately 13,000 works they acquired, works from that period are among the most prevalent. Their acquisitions were facilitated through the assistance of the royal couple&#8217;s artistic advisor, Wilhelm Heinrich Ludwig Gruner, who in the years 1845-47 supplied Victoria and Albert with many Italian paintings through connections with art dealers in Italy.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref18\">[109]<\/a> Some other artists represented in the Royal Collection include Agnolo Gaddi, Verrochio, Fra Angelico, Giovanni Bellini, Benozzo Gozzoli, Antonello da Messina, Perugino, and Gentile da Fabriano.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref19\">[110]<\/a> We know that in 1846 Albert paid \u00a3190 for both a Duccio triptych and <em>Madonna of Humility, <\/em>attributed to Fra Angelico.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref20\">[111]<\/a> Many of the works purchased for Albert&#8217;s collection were hung at the Osborne House, Victoria and Albert&#8217;s summer home, and included Duccio&#8217;s <em>Crucifixion and other Scenes, <\/em>Bernado Daddi&#8217;s <em>The Marriage of the Virgin, <\/em>and several works associated with Raphael.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref21\">[112]<\/a> As with <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>, Victoria and Albert purchased several works by modern artists in the style of Renaissance paintings, including like Scottish artist William Dyce&#8217;s 1845 painting <em>The Madonna and Child<\/em> and another work drawn from Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives, <\/em>Johann Michael Wittmer&#8217;s <em>Raphael&#8217;s First Sketch of &#8216;Madonna della Sedia&#8217;.<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref22\">[113]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was, therefore, a timely and important purchase that helped Victoria and Albert to connect the British monarchy with the cultural prestige of the Italian Renaissance. Victoria\u2019s comments about the painting\u2019s Venetian qualities suggest not only her knowledge of Italian art, but possibly of Ruskin&#8217;s paeans to the greatness of Venetian art and society. If so, then it seems highly plausible that she was aware of his belief that the emulation of the great principles of Venetian art could improve British society at large. More broadly, widely-held views of the Italian Renaissance encompassed many qualities that she may have wished to associate with herself and with Britain as a nation, including the cultivation of artistic greatness and a harmonious, ordered society. It would have been desirable for Victoria&#8217;s reign to be associated with such ideals. A painting that Ruskin had championed for its truth to nature had the power to become a positive symbol of Victoria&#8217;s reign.<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue874' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nPrevious page&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding   \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/conclusion\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nConclusion&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-218","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/218","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=218"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/218\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=218"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":183,"date":"2021-02-22T22:23:48","date_gmt":"2021-02-22T22:23:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=183"},"modified":"2021-08-06T00:47:54","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T00:47:54","slug":"introduction","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/","title":{"rendered":"Introduction"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Introduction<\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div  class='hr hr-default '><span class='hr-inner ' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#4f2f00; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><blockquote>\n<p>&#8220;There was a very big picture by a man called Leighton, his 1st attempt, at the age of 20&#8230; It is a beautiful painting, quite reminding one of a Paul Veronese, so bright and full of light. Albert was enchanted with it &#8211; so much so that he made me buy it. The young man&#8217;s father said that his future career in life would depend on the success of this picture.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>-Queen Victoria in a journal entry, 1855<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Frederic Leighton\u2019s 1855 painting <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna is Carried in Procession through the Streets of Florence <\/em>(Figure 1) depicts a lively ceremony in which a large altar, featuring an altarpiece with the Madonna and Child, is transported through the streets of Florence to the church of Santa Maria Novella. The subject of this panoramic work comes from Giorgio Vasari\u2019s <em>Lives of the Artists<\/em> (1550), which was translated into English in 1850-1<em>.<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a> Leighton modeled the painting-within-the-painting after the well-known <em>Rucellai Madonna<\/em> (Figure 2)\u2014a work then believed to be the work of Cimabue, but subsequently attributed to Sienese painter Duccio di Buoninsegna. The work was painted at an early moment in Leighton\u2019s career, while traveling in Florence, Venice and Rome between 1852-1854 to study the great works of the Italian Renaissance.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a> Nevertheless, the painting was intended for a specifically British viewership, and presented a clearly constructed version of the Renaissance as Leighton and the Victorians saw it.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4\" class=\"size-large wp-image-4\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-1024x446.jpg\" alt=\"Frederic Leighton, Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna\" width=\"1024\" height=\"446\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-1024x446.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-300x131.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-768x335.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-1536x670.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-1200x523.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621-1980x863.jpg 1980w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/02\/255139-1468932621.jpg 2000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-4\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Frederic Leighton, Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, 1853-5, oil on canvas, 87 x 205 in, National Gallery, London.<\/p><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><p><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#634000; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Although the subject matter of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was old, it was created just a couple of years after the English translation of Vasari&#8217;s <em>Lives, <\/em>making it &#8220;ripped from the headlines&#8221; for the British viewing public. Indeed, by rendering this Vasarian anecdote in the style of Venetian narrative painting, Leighton responded directly to vibrant contemporary debates about the Renaissance and its relevance for Victorian art and society.<\/p>\n<p>Of particular importance to Leighton\u2019s vision of the Renaissance was John Ruskin&#8217;s 1851 text <em>Stones of Venice. <\/em>In this text, Ruskin compared the &#8220;essential nobleness&#8221; of Gothic art and architecture with the paganism and lasciviousness of the Renaissance, and stated that &#8220;all great European art is rooted in the thirteenth century.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[4]<\/a> <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>drew praise from Ruskin due to its embodiment of principles of painting that Ruskin applauded in <em>The <\/em><em>Stones of Venice<\/em>, such as &#8220;Venetian simplicity,&#8221; careful construction, exquisite detail, vibrant treatment of color, reliance on truthful representation, and elegant finish.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[5]<\/a> One of Ruskin&#8217;s most salient claims was that contemporary artists who emulated the style of Venetian and Gothic art could thereby regenerate society according to more ethical principles. Leighton intentionally incorporated several of the elements that Ruskin called for in <em>The <\/em><em>Stones of Venice <\/em>in <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>: the painting constitutes a vibrant image of Ruskin\u2019s values and a bid to match the merits of Renaissance art.<\/p>\n<p>In 1855, the painting was shown at the Royal Academy exhibition, receiving positive reviews for its reliance on Italian painting principles and especially its emulation of Venetian works, and was purchased by Queen Victoria. The popular British journal <em>Athenaeum <\/em>commented on the painting following its public display, saying &#8220;One of the finest pictures in the Exhibition\u2014painted in the true, as distinguished from the modern, Pre-Raphaelite style,&#8221; and commented that &#8220;no picture in the Exhibition attracts more interest than the <em>Procession of Cimabue.<\/em>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[6]<\/a> The article went on to say that<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section><br \/>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#663b00; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p><strong>&#8220;There can be no question that the picture is one of great power, although the composition is quaint even to sectarianism; and though the touch, in parts broad and masterly, is in the lesser parts of the roughest character.&#8221;<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref7\"><strong>[7]<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section><\/p><\/div><div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding   \" style='border-radius:0px; '><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><div id=\"attachment_292\" style=\"width: 710px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-292\" class=\"size-full wp-image-292\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"700\" height=\"1066\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700.jpg 700w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-197x300.jpg 197w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-672x1024.jpg 672w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-463x705.jpg 463w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/03\/madonnarucellai700-450x685.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 700px) 100vw, 700px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-292\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. Duccio di Buoninsegna, Rucellai Madonna, 1285, tempera and gold on panel, 180 x 110 in, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/section><\/div><\/p>\n<div  class='hr hr-default '><span class='hr-inner ' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#4f300b; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p><a href=\"#_ftn7\" name=\"_ftnref7\"><\/a>Later in the review, the <em>Athen\u00e6um <\/em>commented on the &#8220;preserved&#8221; Italian art history seen in Leighton&#8217;s painting, the grandeur of the arrangement of figures and architectural elements. Another source, the <em>Art Journal, <\/em>commented that there &#8220;had been no production of modern times more entirely excellent than this&#8230;it is faithful to a high purpose: the conception is worthy of the theme, and that theme is of the loftiest, for it elevates and honors and perpetuates the glory of the artist and the Art.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[8]<\/a> As is clear in these remarks, Victorian critics saw in <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> the reincarnation of the great tradition of Renaissance art.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the <em>Athen\u00e6um<\/em> review also remarked upon the effect of Queen Victoria\u2019s well-publicized purchase of <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> on British viewers: \u201cAmateurs who only admire admired pictures, and critics who are ill to please, disarmed by the Queen&#8217;s purchase of the picture, stop and gaze and smile where they might, perhaps, have sneered or frowned.\u201d As this comment suggests, Victoria\u2019s tastes impacted those of the British public; she, in turn, was sensitive to public perceptions of her artistic patronage. In the journal passage cited above, her comparison of the painting to the work of Venetian painter Paolo Veronese makes clear her knowledge of Renaissance art, and may even suggest her familiarity with Ruskin\u2019s text. Her acquisition of the work, keyed to current intellectual and artistic debates about the Renaissance, established the royal couple as knowledgeable, cultured tastemakers. This was an important move in the wake of the 1848 revolutions that swept across Europe. While Victoria was one of few monarchs to remain in power, the continuing threat of instability both in Britain and its colonies during the early 1850s served as a constant reminder of the tenuousness of her hold on the throne. The purchase of Leighton\u2019s painting was one of many symbolic moves she made to strengthen her central position in the British political and cultural sphere. For Victoria, the purchase would have proved that she was learned, enlightened, and in touch with the sophisticated values of the Italian past.<\/p>\n<p>By relating <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> to Victorian debates about the Renaissance, this capstone sheds new light on Leighton\u2019s art and the relationship of art to politics in the early Victorian era. Though Leighton was a celebrated artist in his own time, and garnered considerable institutional authority as President of the Royal Academy from 1878 to 1896, his lifelong adherence to an academic, narrative tradition of painting led subsequent scholars to see his work as representative of the \u201cbackwardness\u201d of British painting.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[9]<\/a> As Stephen Jones notes in <em>Frederic, Lord Leighton, <\/em>&#8220;Leighton is invariably cited in studies of 19th century British art as the archetypal academic artist. This judgment, in which the implication of the adjective &#8216;academic&#8217; is most often implicitly pejorative, is so universally stated and accepted as to invite no qualification.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[10]<\/a> His work and reputation coincide with a longstanding perception that Victorian art was kitschy, commercial, and anti-modern; as Richard Ormond states, &#8220;He has been considered as the heir to a dead tradition, and whose pictures are arid and lifeless.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[11]<\/a> Ormond\u2019s monograph, published in 1970, provided an initial reevaluation of Leighton&#8217;s work upon which subsequent scholars would build.<\/p>\n<p>With their 1999 monograph <em>Frederic Leighton: Antiquity, Renaissance, Modernity<\/em>, Tim Barringer and Elizabeth Prettejohn sought to further contest Leighton\u2019s marginalization from the history of modern art. Rather than positioning Leighton as a banal academic painter, the authors show his active, thoughtful engagement with the art of the past as well as the concerns of the present day. First, they analyze Leighton&#8217;s appropriation of the ancient world to argue that he was aware of contemporaneous scientific and archaeological developments, saw classical art as a model of &#8216;abstract form,\u2019 and attempted to bring to life to classical statuary.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[12]<\/a> Next, they focus on Leighton&#8217;s lifelong investment in the Renaissance; for Barringer and Prettejohn, <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was an attempt to reinvigorate history painting.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref13\">[13]<\/a> The authors devote the third section to Leighton&#8217;s engagement with his own time, showing that Leighton engaged deeply with contemporary issues such as the nuances of the developing international art world, arising importance of \u00a0public image and self-presentation, and institutional reform within the Royal Academy. They also portray him as an active member of the public sphere, in his role as President of the Royal Academy.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref14\">[14]<\/a> Unlike the contemporary Pre-Raphaelites, Leighton was not interested in referencing the past as a way of escapism from modernity; he was reenergizing the past through emulation.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref15\">[15]<\/a> The authors also discuss attacks on Leighton&#8217;s work, both in its own time and afterward, for its perceived elitism, flamboyance, and effeminacy\u2014attacks that led to his exclusion from traditional accounts of modernism.<\/p>\n<p>Building on the work of Barringer and Prettejohn, Keren Hammerschlag\u2019s <em>Frederic Leighton: Death, Morality, Resurrection<\/em> further situates Leighton in the context of Victorian society and visual culture. Focusing specifically on resonances between Leighton&#8217;s art and current debates about death, theology, morbidity, archaeology, and medicine, Hammerschlag considers the interplay between Leighton&#8217;s practice and his broader historical context. Aligning Leighton&#8217;s work with tropes tied to the Gothic, such as the dead, demons and the occult, she frames Leighton&#8217;s art around John Ruskin&#8217;s description of Leighton as a &#8220;kindred Goth,&#8221; attuned to the great principles of Gothic art and architecture.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref16\">[16]<\/a>An example of the Gothic she provides is Leighton&#8217;s treatment of figures, how they often hover between a state of life and death.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftnref17\">[17]<\/a> In her analysis of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>Hammerschlag argues that the work represents the symbolic death of medievalism. With a composition that mirrors the form of Victorian funeral processions, she claims, the depicted scene marks a transitional state between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, between the death of the old world, and the emergence of the new.<\/p>\n<p>This capstone adds to the recent reevaluation of Leighton\u2019s art and its relationship to the Victorian intellectual, artistic, and political context by analyzing <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> from the perspective of both the artist and patron. In section one, I focus on the painting itself, putting its emulation of Venetian painting principles into the context of Leighton&#8217;s career. Section two frames the painting within broader debates about Italy and the Renaissance, showing how Leighton&#8217;s painting was relevant and responsive to the Victorian art world. Finally, section three analyzes the significance of the painting\u2019s purchase for Victoria and Albert at a moment of political and social instability at home and abroad; the purchase helped the royals to elevate their status as modern leaders in touch with current cultural and intellectual trends. By explicating these aspects of <em>Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>, I seek to further substantiate the emerging view of Leighton as a definitively modern artist.<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue874' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nPrevious page&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding   \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nNext section&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-183","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/183","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=183"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/183\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=183"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":152,"date":"2021-02-18T21:53:05","date_gmt":"2021-02-18T21:53:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=152"},"modified":"2021-08-06T00:57:42","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T00:57:42","slug":"bibliography","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/bibliography\/","title":{"rendered":"Bibliography"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#512103; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Bibliography<\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#63340e; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Abraham, Jennifer. \u201cFrederic Leighton\u2019s \u2018Cimabue\u2019s Celebrated Madonna&#8217;: A Study in<\/p>\n<p>19th-Century Representations of the Renaissance.\u201d <em>The British Art Journal<\/em> 6, no. 3 (December 1, 2005): 59\u201371.<\/p>\n<p>Airplay, F. <em>Prince Albert Why Is He Unpopular?<\/em> London: Saunders and Otley, 1856.<\/p>\n<p>Aligheri, Dante<em>, Purgatorio. <\/em>Translated by Hollander, Jean; Hollander, Robert. New York: Anchor Books, Random House, 2003. pp. 236\u2013237.<\/p>\n<p>Ames, Winslow. <em>Prince Albert and Victorian Taste.<\/em> New York: Viking Press, 1968.<\/p>\n<p>Anderson, Clare. &#8220;The Transportation of Narain Sing: Punishment, Honour and Identity from the Anglo-Sikh Wars to the Great Revolt.&#8221; <em>Modern Asian Studies<\/em> 44, no. 5 (2010): 1115-145.<\/p>\n<p>Anonymous, \u201cFine Art Gossip.\u201d \u00a0<em>The Athen\u00e6um Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, <\/em>1855, pp. 525-528.<\/p>\n<p>Anonymous, &#8220;Fine Arts: Royal Academy.&#8221; <em>The Athen\u00e6um Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, <\/em>1855, pp. 557-560.<\/p>\n<p>Anonymous, &#8220;The Royal Academy: The Exhibition 1854.&#8221; <em>The Art Journal, <\/em>1854, pp. 157-175.<\/p>\n<p>Anonymous, &#8220;The Royal Pictures.&#8221; <em>The <\/em><em>Art Journal,<\/em> 1855, 169-70.<\/p>\n<p>Arnstein, Walter L. &#8220;The Warrior Queen: Reflections on Victoria and Her World.&#8221; <em>Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies<\/em> 30, no. 1 (1998): 1-28.<\/p>\n<p>Auerbach, Jeffrey A. <em>The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Display<\/em>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1999.<\/p>\n<p>Auerbach, Jeffrey A. <em>Imperial Boredom: Monotony and the British Empire. <\/em>Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.<\/p>\n<p>Avery-Quash, Susanna, ed. <em>Victoria &amp; Albert: Art &amp; Love: The Queen&#8217;s Gallery, Buckingham Palace. <\/em>St. James&#8217;s Palace, London: Royal Collection Enterprises Limited, 2012.<\/p>\n<p>Barringer, Tim. &#8220;Rethinking Delaroche\/Recovering Leighton.&#8221; <em>Victorian Studies <\/em>44, no. 1 (2001): 9-24.<\/p>\n<p>Barringer, T. J., Elizabeth. Prettejohn. <em>Frederic Leighton: Antiquity, Renaissance, Modernity. <\/em>Edited by T.J. Barringer and Elizabeth Prettejohn. New Haven: Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art and the Yale Center for British art by Yale University Press, 1999.<\/p>\n<p>Barringer, T. J., Jason Rosenfeld, Alison Smith, Elizabeth. Prettejohn, and Diane Waggoner. <em>Pre-Raphaelites\u202f: Victorian Avant-Garde \/ Tim Barringer, Jason Rosenfeld and Alison Smith; with Contributions by Elizabeth Prettejohn and Diane Waggoner.<\/em> London: Tate, \u00a0 2012.<\/p>\n<p>Barrington, Mrs. Russell. <em>Life, Letters and Work of Frederic Leighton Volume I.<\/em> London: George Allen Ruskin House, 1906.<\/p>\n<p>Barrington, Mrs. Russell. <em>Life, Letters and Work of Frederic Leighton Volume II.<\/em> London: George Allen Ruskin House, 1906.<\/p>\n<p>Baumgart, Winfried. <em>The Crimean War 1853-1856. <\/em>New York: Oxford University Press Inc, 1999.<\/p>\n<p>Belich, James. <em>The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict the Maori, the British, and the New Zealand Wars. <\/em>Montreal: McGill-Queen\u2019s University Press, 1989.<\/p>\n<p>Bellosi, Luciano. <em>Cimabue. <\/em>New York: Abbeville Press, 1998.<\/p>\n<p>Billias, George Athan. <em>American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World, 1776-1989 : A\u00a0 Global Perspective<\/em>. New York: New York University Press, 2009.<\/p>\n<p>Biow, Douglas. <em>Vasari&#8217;s Words: The Lives of the Artists as a History of Ideas in the Italian Renaissance. <\/em>Cambridge: University Printing House, 2018.<\/p>\n<p>Blair, Kirstie. &#8220;Chartism.&#8221; <em>Victorian Literature. <\/em>Oxford University Press, 2011.<\/p>\n<p>Bobotis, Andrea. &#8220;Rival Maternities: Maud Gonne, Queen Victoria, and the Reign of the Political Mother.&#8221; <em>Victorian Studies <\/em>49, no. 1 (2006): 63-83.<\/p>\n<p>Brown, Patricia Fortini. <em>Art and Life in Renaissance Venice. <\/em>New York: Prentice Hall, 1997.<\/p>\n<p>Brown, Patricia Fortini. <em>Venetian Narrative Painting in the Age of Carpaccio. <\/em>New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.<\/p>\n<p>Bullen, J. B. <em>The Myth of the Renaissance in Nineteenth-Century Writing. <\/em>Oxford England: Clarendon Press, 1994.<\/p>\n<p>Cantor, Geoffrey. &#8220;Science, Providence, and Progress at the Great Exhibition.&#8221; <em>Isis<\/em> 103, no. 3 (2012): 439-59.<\/p>\n<p>Casteras, Susan P. <em>John Ruskin and the Victorian Eye. <\/em>New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993.<\/p>\n<p>Chandler, Timothy. \u201cVestures of the Past: The Other Historicisms of Victorian Aesthetics.&#8221; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2019.<\/p>\n<p>Church, R.A. &#8220;Mid-Victorian Prosperity&#8221; in <em>The Great Victorian Boom<\/em> (London: Palgrave, 1975), 71-75.<\/p>\n<p>Codell, Julie F. &#8220;Constructing the Victorian Artist: National Identity, the Political Economy of\u00a0 Art and Biographical Mania in the Periodical Press.&#8221; <em>Victorian Periodicals Review<\/em> 33, no. 3 (2000): 283-316.<\/p>\n<p>Cordulack, Shelley Wood. &#8220;Victorian Caricature and Classicism: Picturing the London Water Crisis.&#8221; <em>International Journal of the Classical Tradition<\/em> 9, no. 4 (2003): 535-83.<\/p>\n<p>Cust, Lionel. \u201cThe Royal Collections. Article I-H. R. H. Prince Albert as an Art Collector.\u201d <em>Burlington magazine for connoisseurs<\/em> 5, no. 13 (1904): 7\u201311.<\/p>\n<p>Dakers, Caroline. <em>The Holland Park Circle: Artists and Victorian Society<\/em>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1999.<\/p>\n<p>Daly, Anthony. \u201cGreat Exhibition of 1851.\u201d <em>The British Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia<\/em>, 2018.<\/p>\n<p>Davidoff, Leonore. &#8220;Class and Gender in Victorian England: The Diaries of Arthur J. 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Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2014.<\/p>\n<p>Woodson-Boulton, Amy. &#8216;&#8221;Industry without Art Is Brutality&#8221;: Aesthetic Ideology and Social Practice in Victorian Art Museums.&#8221; <em>Journal of British Studies <\/em>46, no. 1 (January 2007), 47-71.<\/p>\n<p>Young, G.M. <em>Victorian England: Portrait of an Age. <\/em>New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-152","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/152","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=152"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/152\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=152"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":150,"date":"2021-02-18T21:52:52","date_gmt":"2021-02-18T21:52:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=150"},"modified":"2021-08-06T13:36:07","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T13:36:07","slug":"endnotes","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/","title":{"rendered":"Endnotes"},"content":{"rendered":"<div style='padding-bottom:10px;' class='av-special-heading av-special-heading-h3   '><h3 class='av-special-heading-tag'  itemprop=\"headline\"  >Endnotes<\/h3><div class='special-heading-border'><div class='special-heading-inner-border' ><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[1]<\/a> Christopher Newall, <em>The Art of Lord Leighton <\/em>(Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1990)<em>, <\/em>17.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[2]<\/a> Newall, <em>The Art of Lord Leighton, <\/em>14.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[3]<\/a> Ernest Rhys, <em>Frederic Lord Leighton, An Illustrated Record of His Life and Work, <\/em>(London: George Bell and Sons, 1900), 6.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[4]<\/a> Hilary Fraser, <em>The Victorians and Renaissance Italy<\/em> (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1992), 100.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[5]<\/a> &#8220;Notes on Some of the Principal Pictures Exhibited in the Rooms of the Royal Academy Exhibition. 1855&#8221; <em>The Crayon<\/em> 2, no. 7 (1855): 98-101.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">[6]<\/a> Anonymous, \u201cFine Art Gossip,\u201d <em>The Athen\u00e6um<\/em>, (1855): 527. <a href=\"#_ftnref7\" name=\"_ftn7\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[7]<\/a> Anonymous, &#8220;Fine Arts: Royal Academy,&#8221;\u00a0<em>The Athenaeum, <\/em>(1855): 558. <a href=\"#_ftnref8\" name=\"_ftn8\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[8]<\/a> Anonymous, &#8220;The Royal Pictures,&#8221; <em>Art Journal,<\/em> 1855: 169-70.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[9]<\/a> Newall, <em>The Art of Lord Leighton, <\/em>140. <a href=\"#_ftnref10\" name=\"_ftn10\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[10]<\/a> Stephen Jones, &#8220;Leighton the Academic,&#8221; in <em>Frederic, Lord Leighton: Eminent Victorian Artist, <\/em>ed. Phyllis Freeman (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1996), 55.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn11\">[11]<\/a> Richard Ormond, &#8220;Leighton and His Contemporaries,&#8221; in <em>Frederic, Lord Leighton, <\/em>21.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn12\">[12]<\/a> Tim Barringer and Elizabeth Prettejohn, <em>Frederic Leighton: Antiquity, Renaissance, Modernity <\/em>(New Haven: Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art and the Yale Center for British Art by Yale University Press, 1999), xxiv <a href=\"#_ftnref13\" name=\"_ftn13\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn13\">[13]<\/a> Barringer and Prettejohn, <em>Frederic Leighton, <\/em>xxv <a href=\"#_ftnref14\" name=\"_ftn14\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn14\">[14]<\/a> Barringer and Prettejohn, <em>Frederic Leighton, <\/em>xxvi.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn15\">[15]<\/a> Barringer and Prettejohn, <em>Frederic Leighton, <\/em>xviii<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn16\">[16]<\/a> Keren Hammerschlag, <em>Frederic Leighton: Death, Mortality, Resurrection <\/em>(Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2015), 4; John Ruskin, &#8216;Lecture 3: Classic Schools of Painting: Sir F. Leighton and Alma Tadema&#8217;, in <em>The Art of England: Lectures Given in Oxford <\/em>(Sunnyside, Orpington, Ken: George Allen, 1884), 96.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/introduction\/\" name=\"_ftn17\">[17]<\/a> Hammerschlag, <em>Frederic Leighton: Death, Mortality, Resurrection, <\/em>6.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[18]<\/a> Giorgio Vasari, <em>Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects <\/em>(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946), 4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[19]<\/a> Vasari, <em>Lives of the Artists, <\/em>16.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[20]<\/a> Vasari, <em>Lives of the Artists,<\/em> 84. <a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[21]<\/a> Vasari, <em>Lives of the Artists, <\/em>4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[22]<\/a> Vasari, <em>Lives of the Artists,<\/em> 4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[23]<\/a> Jennifer Abraham, &#8220;Frederic Leighton&#8217;s &#8216;Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna&#8217;: A Study in 19th-Century Representations of the Renaissance,&#8221; <em>The British Art Journal <\/em>6, no. 3 (December 2005), 64. <a href=\"#_ftnref4\" name=\"_ftn4\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[24]<\/a> Fraser, <em>The Victorians and Renaissance Italy, <\/em>45.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[25]<\/a> Vasari had attributed to Taddeo Gaddi and Simone Memmi, which we know now to be untrue. Leighton believed the figures in the fresco to be Cimabue, Simone Memmi, Taddeo Gaddi, and Giotto. It is now known that these artists were mistakenly identified. It was quite common for artworks to be misattributed during the Victorian period. See Julian Gardner, &#8220;Andrea di Bonaiuto and the Chapterhouse Frescoes in Santa Maria Novella,&#8221; <em>Art History <\/em>2, no. 1, 1979, 108-9 and Stephen Jones, <em>Frederic, Lord Leighton: Eminent Victorian Artist. <\/em>(London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1996), 570. <a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[26]<\/a> Anonymous, &#8220;Fine Art Gossip,&#8221; 572.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[27]<\/a> Dante Aligheri, <em>Purgatorio, <\/em>trans. Jean Hollander (New York: Anchor Books, Random House, 2003), 237.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[28]<\/a> Emilie Barrington, <em>Life, Letters, and Work of Frederic Leighton Vol. II <\/em>(London: George Allen Ruskin House, 1906), 21.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[29]<\/a> Patricia Fortini Brown, <em>Venetian Narrative Painting in the Age of Carpaccio<\/em> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 1.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[30]<\/a> Steven Jones, &#8220;The Image of the Artist: The Influence of Renaissance Sources on High Victorian Art,&#8221; <em>RSA Journal <\/em>137, no. 5397 (1989), 570.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[31]<\/a> Fortini Brown, <em>Venetian Narrative Painting<\/em>, 2.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[32]<\/a> Patricia Fortini Brown, <em>Art and Life in Renaissance Venice<\/em>, (New York: Prentice Hall, 1997), 86.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[33]<\/a> Jonathan Marsden, <em>Victoria and Albert, Art and Love, <\/em>(London: Royal Collection, 2010), 123.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[34]<\/a> Anonymous, &#8216;The Royal Academy Exhibition, 1854,&#8221; <em>The <\/em><em>Art Journal <\/em>(1854): 161.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[35]<\/a> John Ruskin, <em>The Works of John Ruskin, <\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 26.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[36]<\/a> Fortini Brown, <em>Art and Life in Renaissance Venice, <\/em>9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[37]<\/a> Fortini Brown, <em>Art and Life in Renaissance Venice, <\/em>9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[38]<\/a> John E. Law and Lene \u00d8stermark-Johansen, <em>Victorian and Edwardian Responses to the Renaissance <\/em>(Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2005), 1.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[39]<\/a> Frank M. Turner, &#8220;Medievalism and the Invention of the Renaissance,&#8221; in <em>European Intellectual History from Rousseau to Nietzsche <\/em>(New Haven, Yale University Press, 2014),\u00a0 73.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">[40]<\/a> R.A. Church, &#8220;Mid-Victorian Prosperity,&#8221; in <em>The Great Victorian Boom <\/em>(London: Palgrave, 1975) 71.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[41]<\/a> Abraham, &#8220;Frederic Leighton&#8217;s &#8216;Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna,&#8221; 61.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[42]<\/a> Fraser, <em>Victorians and the Renaissance,<\/em> 65.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[43]<\/a> Fraser, <em>Victorians and the Renaissance,<\/em> 63.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[44]<\/a> In 1848, they housed a summer exhibition of Italian paintings which drew a significant crowd. Flavia Dietrich, &#8220;Art History Painted: The Pre-Raphaelite View of Italian Art: Some Works by Rossetti,&#8221; <em>The British Art Journal <\/em>2, no. 1 (2000), 69.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[45]<\/a> Fraser, <em>The Victorians and Renaissance Italy, <\/em>3.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[46]<\/a> Turner, &#8220;Medievalism and the Invention of the Renaissance,&#8221; 73.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[47]<\/a> &#8220;1819\u20131829 Italy and after,&#8221; in <em>J.M.W. Turner: Sketchbooks, Drawings and Watercolours<\/em>, ed. David Blayney Brown (London: Tate Research Publication, 2012).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[48]<\/a> Lene \u00d8stermark-Johanson, &#8220;Introduction,&#8221; in <em>Victorian and Edwardian Responses to the Renaissance,<\/em> 4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[49]<\/a> Katerine Gaja, &#8220;Illustrating Lorenzo the Magnificent: From William Roscoe&#8217;s <em>The Life of Lorenzo de&#8217; Medici called the Magnificent <\/em>(1795) to George Frederic Watts&#8217;s Fresco at Careggi (1845),&#8221; in <em>Victorian and Edwardian Responses to the Renaissance,<\/em> 121.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">[50]<\/a> J.B. Bullen, <em>The Myth of the Renaissance in Nineteenth-Century Writing<\/em> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 96.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[51]<\/a> Narasingha P. Sil, &#8220;Augustus W.N. Pugin: Restless Genius,&#8221; <em>Studies in History (Sahibabad) <\/em>29, no. 2 (2013), 208.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[52]<\/a> Sil, &#8220;Augustus W.N. Pugin: Restless Genius,&#8221; 208.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[53]<\/a> Tim Barringer and Jason Rosenfeld, &#8220;Victorian Avant-Garde,&#8221; in <em>Pre-Raphaelites: Victorian Avant-Garde<\/em> (London: Tate, 2012), 10.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[54]<\/a> Sil, &#8220;Augustus W.N. Pugin: Restless Genius,&#8221; 218.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn11\">[55]<\/a> Augustus Pugin, <em>Contrasts: or a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and Corresponding Buildings of the Present Day: Shewing the Present Decay of Taste <\/em>(Edinburgh: J. Grant), iii.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn12\">[56]<\/a> Bullen, <em>The Myth of the Renaissance, <\/em>104.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn13\">[57]<\/a> Augustus Pugin, <em>Contrasts, <\/em>16.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[58]<\/a> Aidan Nichols, &#8220;Building Blocks: The Stones of Venice,&#8221; in <em>All Great Art is Praise <\/em>(Washington, DC.: Catholic University of America Press, 2016), 202.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[59]<\/a> Susan P. Casteras, <em>Ruskin and the Victorian Eye<\/em> (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993), 15.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[60]<\/a> Fraser, <em>Victorians and the Renaissance,<\/em> 62.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[61]<\/a> Barrington, <em>Life, Letters and work of Frederic Leighton Vol. 1<\/em>, 109.<a href=\"#_ftnref5\" name=\"_ftn5\"><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">\u00a0[62]<\/a>Casteras, &#8220;John Ruskin and the Victorian Eye,&#8221; 33.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[63]<\/a>Casteras, &#8220;John Ruskin and the Victorian Eye,&#8221; 140.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[64]<\/a> Barrington, <em>The Life, Letters and Work of Frederic Leighton, Vol. 1,<\/em> 180; Ruskin, \u201c1855,\u201d in <em>The Works of John Ruskin, <\/em>26.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[65]<\/a> Ruskin, &#8220;1855,&#8221; in <em>The Works of John Ruskin, <\/em>27.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[66]<\/a>Hammerschlag, <em>Frederic Leighton: Death, Mortality, Resurrection, <\/em>2<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn11\">[67]<\/a>Barringer and Rosenfeld, <em>The Victorian Avant-Garde,<\/em> 10.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn12\">[68]<\/a> Barringer and Rosenfeld, <em>The Victorian Avant-Garde<\/em>, 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn13\">[69]<\/a>Lucy Hartley, &#8220;Putting the Drama into Everyday Life: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and a Very Ordinary Aesthetic,&#8221; <em>Journal of Victorian Culture <\/em>7, no. 2 (2002): 175.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ftnref13\" name=\"_ftn13\"><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn14\">[70]<\/a>Dante Rossetti, <em>Germ: Thoughts Toward Nature in Poetry, Literature and Art,<\/em> 59.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn15\">[71]<\/a>Barringer, <em>The Victorian Avant-Garde, <\/em>44.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn16\">[72]<\/a>Barringer, <em>The Victorian Avant-Garde, <\/em>44.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/\" name=\"_ftn16\">[73]<\/a> Anonymous, &#8220;Fine Art Gossip,&#8221; 527.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[74]<\/a> Newall, <em>The Art of Lord Leighton, <\/em>17.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[75]<\/a> George Athan Billias, <em>American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World <\/em>(New York: New York University Press, 2009), 184.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[76]<\/a> Billias, <em>American Constitutionalism, <\/em>192.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[77]<\/a> Billias, <em>American Constitutionalism, <\/em>195.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[78]<\/a> <em>Illustrated London News, <\/em>4 March 1848.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">[79]<\/a> Greville Memoirs, VI, 209.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[80]<\/a> Roland Quinault, \u201c1848 and Parliamentary Reform,&#8221; <em>The Historical Journal <\/em>31, no. 4 (1988), 846.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[81]<\/a> Richard Monckton Milnes and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, <em>The Events of 1848 <\/em>(London: J. Ollivier, 1849)<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[82]<\/a> David Goodway, <em>London Chartism <\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 76.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[83]<\/a> Kirstie Blair, &#8220;Chartism,&#8221; in <em>Victorian Literature <\/em>(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn11\">[84]<\/a> John Plunkett, &#8220;Of Hype and Type: The Media Making of Queen Victoria 1837-1845,&#8221; <em>Critical Survey <\/em>13, no. 2 (2001): 23.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn12\">[85]<\/a> Thomas Carlyle, <em>Latter-day pamphlets <\/em>(London, 1850), 7-8.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn13\">[86]<\/a> Shelley Wood Cordulack, &#8220;Victorian Caricature and Classicism: Picturing the London Water Crisis,&#8221; <em>International Journal of the Classical Tradition <\/em>9, no. 4 (2003): 535.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn14\">[87]<\/a> James Belich, <em>The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict of the Maori. The British, and the New Zealand Wars <\/em>(Montreal: McGill-Queen&#8217;s University Press), 15.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn15\">[88]<\/a> Clare Anderson, &#8220;The Transportation of Narain Sing: Punishment, Honour and Identity form the Anglo-Sikh Wars to the Great Revolt,&#8221; <em>Modern Asian Studies <\/em>44, no. 5 (2010), 1118.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn16\">[89]<\/a> Anderson, &#8220;The Transportation of Narain Sing,&#8221; 1118.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn17\">[90]<\/a> Shane Malhotra, &#8220;&#8216;If She Escapes She Will Publish Everything&#8217;: Lady Sale and the Media Frenzy of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842)&#8221; <em>Book History <\/em>17 (2014): 273.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn18\">[91]<\/a> Julien Mauduit, &#8220;American Republicanism at a Crossroads: Canadian &#8216;Twin Stars,&#8217; Annexation, and Continental Order (1837-42)&#8221; <em>Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal <\/em>18, no. 3 (2020): 366.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn1\">[92]<\/a> Walter L. Arnstein, &#8220;The Warrior Queen: Reflections on Victoria and her World,&#8221; <em>Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies <\/em>30, no. 1 (1998): 2.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn2\">[93]<\/a> F. Airplay, <em>Prince Albert Why Is He Unpopular? <\/em>(London: Saunders and Otley, 1856), 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn3\">[94]<\/a> Plunkett, &#8220;Of Hype and Type,&#8221; 7.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn4\">[95]<\/a> &#8220;The Royal Actresses Debut,&#8221; <em>Figaro in London, <\/em>25 November 1837, 185.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn5\">[96]<\/a> Plunket, &#8220;Of Hype and Type,&#8221; 21.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn6\">[97]<\/a> Plunkett, &#8220;Of Hype and Type,&#8221; 20.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn7\">[98]<\/a> Ira B. Nadel, &#8220;Portraits of the Queen,&#8221; <em>Victorian Poetry <\/em>25, no. 3 (1987): 170.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn8\">[99]<\/a> Nadel, &#8220;Portraits of the Queen,&#8221; 170.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn9\">[100]<\/a> &#8220;Queen Victoria (1819-1901),&#8221; Royal Collection Trust, \u00a0https:\/\/www.rct.uk\/collection\/404388\/queen-victoria-1819-1901-0.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn10\">[101]<\/a> J. Edgcumbe Staley, <em>British Painters, Their Story and Their Art <\/em>(New York: Frederic A Stokes Company, 1913), 257.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn11\">[102]<\/a> Jeffrey A. Auerbach, <em>The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Display <\/em>(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999)<em>, <\/em>23<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn12\">[103]<\/a> Wolfram Kaiser, &#8220;Cultural Transfer of Free Trade at the World Exhibitions, 1851-1862,&#8221; <em>The Journal of Modern History <\/em>77, no. 3 (September 2005:) 564.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn13\">[104]<\/a> Anthony Daly, &#8220;Great Exhibition of 1851,&#8221; <em>The British Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, <\/em>2018.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn14\">[105]<\/a> Kaiser, &#8220;Cultural Transfer of Free Trade at the World Exhibitions,&#8221; 565.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn15\">[106]<\/a> Vanessa Remington, &#8220;Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and their relations with artists,&#8221; in <em>Victoria &amp; Albert: Art &amp; Love<\/em>, ed. Susanna Avery-Quash (London: Royal Collection Trust, 2012), 2.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\">[107]<\/a> Marsden, <em>Victoria and Albert, Art and Love,<\/em> 46.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn17\">[108]<\/a> Marsden, <em>Victoria and Albert, Art and Love, <\/em>47.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn18\">[109]<\/a> Avery-Quash, &#8220;Incessant Personal Exertions and Comprehensive Artistic knowledge,&#8221; in <em>Victoria &amp; Albert: Art and Love,<\/em> 8.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn19\">[110]<\/a> Lionel Cust, &#8220;The Royal Collections. Article I-H. R. H. Prince Albert as an Art Collector,&#8221; <em>Burlington Magazine <\/em>5, no. 13, (1904): 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn20\">[111]<\/a> Avery-Quash, &#8220;Incessant personal exertions and comprehensive artistic knowledge,&#8221; 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn21\">[112]<\/a> Avery-Quash, &#8220;Incessant personal exertions comprehensive artistic knowledge,&#8221; 3.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/\" name=\"_ftn22\">[113]<\/a> Avery-Quash, &#8220;Incessant Personal Exertions and Comprehensive Artistic knowledge,&#8221; 12-13.<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-150","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/150","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=150"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/150\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=150"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":23,"date":"2021-02-15T22:26:51","date_gmt":"2021-02-15T22:26:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=23"},"modified":"2021-08-06T13:34:29","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T13:34:29","slug":"conclusion","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/conclusion\/","title":{"rendered":"Conclusion"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#66330f; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><h2 style=\"text-align: center\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#6d3517; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p><em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was purchased in a particular moment which lends itself to further investigation. It aligned with the British monarchy&#8217;s potential destabilization, and was undoubtedly wrapped up in political undercurrents, due to the very specific associations Renaissance art had with intellect and rebirth, and the very extreme political predicaments Britain was facing at the time. For Leighton, <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was intended to create a name for himself as a young emerging artist. Although he eventually became President of the Royal Academy, he has been dismissed by scholars and even some contemporaries for adhering to the unpopular academic tradition. It is unfortunate that Leighton&#8217;s reputation and legacy has deteriorated, especially considering his lofty artistic ambitions at the beginning of his career, and the jumpstart he received from Victoria&#8217;s purchase. With this capstone, I sought to remedy his reputation, and prove that his work was not stale and outdated, but was actually incredibly and modernly attuned with Victorian trends in the wake of incredible fervor for the Renaissance. Following the fairly recent reevaluation of Leighton, this capstone sought to prove that Leighton does indeed fall within the confines of modern art. While <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>may seem antiquated and traditional, Leighton was demonstrating that he was incredibly perceptive to contemporaneous debates swirling throughout Britain. His knowledge of the Victorian art scene was a strategically deliberate way to make a name for himself, and carve out a niche for his work within the art scene, relying on the fashionable trend of the Renaissance.<\/p>\n<p>To return to Victoria&#8217;s quote, she mentioned that Leighton&#8217;s career depended on the success of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna. <\/em>I believe that this purchase was twofold; for Victoria, not only would it bring fame and success to Leighton, but would also create a positive reputation for herself through her collecting practice. \u00a0It is uncertain whether or not Victoria and Albert&#8217;s purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>actually uplifted public opinion and confidence in the British monarchy. Because of Victoria&#8217;s history of attempting to shape and guide public opinion, one can assume the purchase undeniably contributed to this mission, and helped shape Victoria&#8217;s reputation as an intellectual and fashionable figure.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue874' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nPrevious page&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding   \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nEndnotes&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-23","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/23","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=23"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/23\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=23"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":19,"date":"2021-02-15T22:26:15","date_gmt":"2021-02-15T22:26:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=19"},"modified":"2021-02-25T01:23:11","modified_gmt":"2021-02-25T01:23:11","slug":"queen-victoria-and-prince-alberts-purchase-of-cimabues-celebrated-madonna","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victoria-and-prince-alberts-purchase-of-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/","title":{"rendered":"The Purchase"},"content":{"rendered":"<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock '   itemprop=\"text\" ><h1>Section 3: Victoria and Albert&#8217;s Purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna. <\/em><\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div  class='hr hr-default '><span class='hr-inner ' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div>\n\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#000000; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>In light of the upsurge of interest in Italy and the Renaissance, Victoria and Albert&#8217;s purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>signified their knowledge of this interest, and their desire to become tastemakers themselves. Patronage and the purchase of art were used deliberately by Victoria throughout her reign, and this purchase signified her desire to become a &#8220;modern Medici&#8221;. Upon seeing <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>Queen Victoria wrote in her journal, &#8220;There was a very big picture by a man called Leighton, his 1st attempt, at the age of 20&#8230; It is a beautiful painting, quite reminding one of a Paul Veronese, so bright and full of light. Albert was enchanted with it &#8211; so much so that he made me buy it. The young man&#8217;s father, said that his future career in life would depend on the success of this picture.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[1]<\/a> This passage, taken from Queen Victoria&#8217;s private journal from May 3, 1855, encompasses her initial reactions of viewing the painting following her private visitation to the Royal Academy the day before its opening.<\/p>\n<p>In light of events such as the Crimean War, growing tensions between the people and monarchical rule across Europe, as well as the Great Exhibition, there was no better moment for Victoria and Albert to have purchased the work to express their political values and demonstrate national pride amidst a bundle of social issues in Britain.<\/p>\n<p>Victoria and Albert frequently used their art patronage for symbolic purposes, to represent themselves and Britain in specific, calculated ways. An example of a work commissioned by Victoria and Albert to construct a certain image of her family and of England is an 1851 painting entitled <em>The First of May 1851 <\/em>by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, which was \u00a0commissioned by Queen Victoria to serve as an allegory of national pride and achievement after the great success of the Great Exhibition.<a href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a> (Fig. 3). The painting depicts a family portrait of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and their son Prince Arthur, who is morbidly being given a casket by the Duke of Wellington. Albert looks over his shoulder longingly towards the back of the painting, where we see the Crystal Palace in the distance, which housed the Great Exhibition in that same year<\/p>\n<p>One of the reasons behind the purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was Victoria and Albert&#8217;s own interest in Renaissance and Medieval art and culture. As Barbara Gribling notes, the royals used their collecting practice to affirm aspects of their own power, and connect their own status to that of the Renaissance.<a href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a> Albert&#8217;s fascination with that period is demonstrated through his patronage of works such as a fresco done for the Houses of Parliament depicting the Black Prince and Edward III of England.<a href=\"#_ftn4\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[4]<\/a> In 1842, Victoria and Albert hosted a costume ball in the theme of medieval times and Edward III, where, dressed as Edward III and Philippa of Hainault, they were tied to the royal power attributed to previous monarchs, therefore emphasizing their own prestige and legitimacy (Fig. 4).<a href=\"#_ftn5\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[5]<\/a> Two other balls of this nature were held by the couple, a Georgian ball in 1845 and a Restoration-style ball in 1851. Victoria and Albert evidently sought not only to commission works of art that celebrated the achievements of the Renaissance, but they incorporated this culture into their own lives.<\/p>\n<p>To understand the magnitude of Victoria and Albert&#8217;s patronage and what ideals they sought to exemplify in the works they purchased, it is necessary to explore the items acquired for the Royal Collection at this time. Of the many family portraits commissioned by Victoria and Albert, there were many in which the family members are dressed as historical figures. Some examples of this include <em>Victoria, Princess Royal, and Princess Alice in eighteenth-century costume <\/em>(1850) (Fig. 5), <em>Prince Arthur in the undress uniform of the Grenadiers&#8217;; Prince Arthur, late Duke of Connaught <\/em>(1854) (Fig. 6) and <em>Prince Arthur and Prince Leopold in the costume of the sons of King Henry IVth <\/em>(1859) (Fig. 7). Many of these images feature children in historical dress. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert deliberately costumed members of the Royal Family to allude to certain historical figures and periods just as they purchased works such as <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>to proliferate certain values. Clearly, they were invested in connecting their reign to a different historical period to elevate and cement their own status as key players within the course of history, and to mark themselves as learned people.<\/p>\n<p><em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>is only one example of Leighton looking to the past and incorporating ideals of medievalism and the Renaissance. This was also not the last time in which Leighton&#8217;s work was sought after by Victoria and Albert. In the 1870s, about twenty years following the purchase of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna, <\/em>Leighton was once again affiliated with Victoria and Albert in his South Kensington Museum Fresco, entitled <em>The Arts of Industry as Applied to War <\/em>(Fig. 8). It is known that Prince Albert was invested in the revival of public art, as well as early Renaissance painting. According to Emilie Barrington, &#8220;The Prince Consort (Albert)\u2026first conceived the idea of decorating spaces on the walls of the Victoria and Albert Museum with frescoes, as a memorial of the nation&#8217;s gratitude on the close of the Crimean War, and mentioned the subject to Leighton.&#8221;<a href=\"#_ftn6\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[6]<\/a> Through the title, the painting also refers to the success of the Great Exhibition and its industrial accomplishments for Britain. Both <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>and <em>The Arts of Industry <\/em>worked nationalistically in favor of Victoria and Albert&#8217;s reign. <em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>well as the stylistic components of artists like Paulo Veronese to promote certain values that would be tied to Victoria and Albert&#8217;s name for eternity. This is yet another example of Victoria and Albert using the past to call attention to contemporaneous events to reinforce Britain&#8217;s achievements, to promote their own nationalistic ideals, and to represent Britain in a positive light.<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a><a href=\"#_ftnref2\" name=\"_ftn2\"><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/the-political-advantage-of-the-purchase\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nNext page&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-19","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=19"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=19"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":17,"date":"2021-02-15T22:23:54","date_gmt":"2021-02-15T22:23:54","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/?page_id=17"},"modified":"2021-08-06T00:50:33","modified_gmt":"2021-08-06T00:50:33","slug":"victorians-and-the-renaissance","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/victorians-and-the-renaissance\/","title":{"rendered":"The Victorians&#8217; Renaissance"},"content":{"rendered":"<\/div><\/div><\/div><!-- close content main div --><\/div><\/div><div id='av-tab-section-2' class='av-tab-section-container entry-content-wrapper main_color av-tab-no-transition av-tab-above-content  container_wrap fullsize'   ><div class='av-tab-section-outer-container'><div class='av-tab-section-tab-title-container avia-tab-title-padding-default ' ><a href='#' data-av-tab-section-title='1' class='av-section-tab-title av-active-tab-title av-tab-no-icon av-tab-no-image  '><span class='av-outer-tab-title'><span class='av-inner-tab-title'>Victorians and the Renaissance<\/span><\/span><span class='av-tab-arrow-container'><span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div><div class='av-tab-section-inner-container avia-section-default' style='width:100vw; left:0%;'><span class='av_prev_tab_section av_tab_navigation'><\/span><span class='av_next_tab_section av_tab_navigation'><\/span>\n<div data-av-tab-section-content=\"1\" class=\"av-layout-tab av-animation-delay-container av-active-tab-content __av_init_open   \" style='vertical-align:middle; ' ><div class='av-layout-tab-inner'><div class='container'><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='color:#492b0b; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><h1 style=\"text-align: center\">Section 2: The Victorians&#8217; Renaissance<\/h1>\n<\/div><\/section><br \/>\n<div  class='hr hr-default '><span class='hr-inner ' ><span class='hr-inner-style'><\/span><\/span><\/div><br \/>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#4f2e06; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><blockquote>\n<p>&#8220;This is a very important and very beautiful picture. It has both sincerity and grace, and is painted on the purest principles of Venetian art- that is to say, on the calm acceptance of the whole nature, small and great, as, in its place, deserving of a faithful rendering.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[35]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&#8211; John Ruskin in his <em>Academy Notes <\/em>on <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna,<\/em> following the 1855 Royal Academy Exhibition.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p><em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>participated in a robust debate amongst Victorian artists, critics, historians, and philosophers about how the Italian Renaissance should be defined and how it compared to modern Britain. All parties to this debate agreed upon some fundamental premises: first, the periodization of the Renaissance, starting in the 14th century and ending in the 16th century with the 1527 Sack of Rome and advent and censorship efforts of the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[36]<\/a> The Victorians viewed the Renaissance as a model for society, a period of chivalry, classical revival, intellectual ferment and social as well as scientific advancement. More specifically, it was associated with the flourishing of humanism, or a secular system of thought that recognized the value of human action alongside the power attributed to the divine. In the sphere of the visual arts, it was linked to the development of a form of ideal beauty that struck a balance between naturalism and idealism, and the perfection of techniques such as perspective and chiaroscuro to create a convincing illusion of three-dimensionality.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[37]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>While Victorian thinkers agreed upon these fundamental properties of the Renaissance, they understood its significance and its relevance to the present in differing ways, as evidenced by the writings of figures such as John Ruskin, J.A. Symonds, Walter Pater, Edward Armstrong, Emilia Dilke, Cecilia Mary Ady, and Arthur Burd, among others.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[38]<\/a> Broadly speaking, we can divine two distinct methods for studying the Renaissance. Some, like Symonds, approached their study of the Renaissance using historicism, constructing comprehensive written histories. Others, such as Pater, gathered their understanding based on their own subjective impressions of Renaissance works from the perspective of the present. While most of these figures viewed the Renaissance as a cultural and artistic pinnacle, others, including Ruskin, upheld the &#8220;purity&#8221; of the Middle Ages as a foil to humanist secularism. Still others claimed their own age as a Victorian Renaissance, in which intellectual ingenuity and artistic creativity could solve modern ailments like industrialism, rising unemployment, hunger, and political division.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[39]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>An important factor driving the resurgence of interest in Italian Renaissance art in the Victorian era was a significant expansion of the British art market, enabled by sustained economic prosperity and a rise in income rates.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[40]<\/a> Trade in Italian Renaissance works in particular was due in part to the widespread looting of Italian collections by French forces in the \u00a0Napoleonic Wars (1796-1815); many of these spoliated works subsequently circulated in the British art market.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[41]<\/a> Another important factor was the tenure of Charles Lock Eastlake as Keeper at the National Gallery from 1843-55, and President from 1850-65. Under Eastlake, who traveled to Italy annually to acquire works, the National Gallery\u2019s collection of 15th- and 16th-century Italian paintings increased substantially. Among Eastlake\u2019s purchases were works by well-known artists, including Correggio&#8217;s <em>Madonna of the Basket<\/em>; Titian&#8217;s <em>Bacchus and Ariadne<\/em>; Bellini&#8217;s <em>Doge Leonardo Loredan<\/em>; Annibale Carraccci&#8217;s <em>Temptation of St. Anthony<\/em>; and Raphael&#8217;s <em>St. Catherine of Alexandria <\/em>and <em>An Allegory (Vision of a Knight)<\/em>.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[42]<\/a> Bequests from wealthy donors also augmented the Gallery\u2019s collection, including a large number of Italian works given by Reverend William Holwell Carr in 1831, and Robert Vernon&#8217;s gift of 157 pictures in 1847.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[43]<\/a> The British Institution, a private society and arts organization, also hosted exhibits of Italian \u201cOld Master\u201d paintings during this period.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[44]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>The end of the Napoleonic Wars also enabled Britons to resume travel within Europe, re-establishing the 18<sup>th<\/sup>-century tradition of the Grand Tour.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[45]<\/a> This practice was facilitated by new travel guides such as John Murray&#8217;s <em>Handbook for Travellers in North Italy,<\/em> and<em> Handbook for Travellers in Central Italy, <\/em>published in 1842 and 1843 respectively. Charles Dickens\u2019s 1846 book <em>Pictures from Italy, <\/em>based on his travels, provided a vivid chronicle of Rome, Venice, and Naples. Like many authors, Dickens depicted Italy as if untouched by aspects of the modern world, such as industrialization.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[46]<\/a> This romanticized vision of Italy was also shared by many artists, such as J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851), who depicted Italian land and seascapes on multiple occasions in the 1820s and 30s. Turner visited Venice, Rome and Napes in 1819-20 and Rome again in 1828-9, where he completed a series of watercolors and sketches depicting a range of vibrant Italian scenes. Many of Turner\u2019s pictures were exhibited in the Royal Academy\u2019s annual exhibitions, thus spurring further interest in Italian culture.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[47]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>The Victorian conception of the Renaissance was not simply affected by increasing encounters with Italian artworks or images of Italy. Several texts published in this period, including the translation of Vasari\u2019s <em>Lives<\/em>, positioned the Renaissance as a pinnacle of cultural achievement surpassing the modern day. One reason for the fascination in the Renaissance was the availability of newly translated &#8216;Life and Works of&#8230;&#8217; volumes during the nineteenth century, which greatly proliferated the genius of many Italian artists.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[48]<\/a> Several Victorian writers modelled their own studies on such texts, like William Roscoe&#8217;s <em>Life of Lorenzo <\/em>(1795) which was published in thirteen versions between 1795 and 1883.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[49]<\/a> Another text that used this prototype was Anna Jameson&#8217;s 1845 text <em>Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters, <\/em>which featured biographies of prominent artists like Cimabue, Giotto, Michelangelo, and Da Vinci, and Thomas Hope&#8217;s <em>Historical Essay on Architecture <\/em>(1835), which extolled the &#8216;mighty genius&#8217; of Renaissance masters, especially Michelangelo.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[50]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Arguably, though, two voices dominated the Victorian conversation about the Renaissance: Augustus Pugin and John Ruskin. Pugin (1812-52) was an acclaimed leading architect of the Medieval Gothic revival movement in Britain, where he sought to reform society and its taste in art and architecture through the principles of design associated with the Gothic.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[51]<\/a> Within his practice, he believed in creating a style that would essentially merge the experience and contributions of the past with the practicality of the present, and championed architectural principles of beauty, propriety, and truthfulness, which he felt could convey morality.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[52]<\/a> Pugin put Italian architecture at the center of a moral debate in his book <em>Contrasts <\/em>(1836; 2nd ed., 1842). There, he sought to demonstrate that architecture reflected the state of the society that built it. The titular \u201ccontrast\u201d of Pugin\u2019s book was between the beauty and spirituality of medieval Italian Gothic architecture and the corrupt soullessness of modern Victorian buildings.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[53]<\/a> He surveyed an array of British buildings against the foil of their fifteenth century equivalents, including the Kings Cross Battle Bridge in London (1830) and the Chichester Cross in West Sussex (1477-1503; Figure 9). Pugin appreciated the medieval period because of its supposed superiority over the Victorian age due to its Christian social order.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[54]<\/a> He urged his readers to connect the decay of religion in modern British society with social, political, and cultural deterioration.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[55]<\/a> If British architects revived the Gothic style, he believed, it would allow society to return to the solid faith and social structures of the Middle Ages, and remedy the nation&#8217;s poor taste.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[56]<\/a> As he wrote in <em>Contrasts<\/em>,<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;It is only by communing with the spirit of past ages, as it is developed in the lives of the holy men of old, and in their wonderful monuments and works, that we can arrive at a just appreciation of the glories we have lost, or adopt the necessary means for their recovery.&#8221;<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref13\"><strong>[57]<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>By reviving the principles of Gothic architecture, Pugin argued, modern builders could regain the lost glory that he associated with the medieval past.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_516\" style=\"width: 802px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-516\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-516 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"792\" height=\"592\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206.png 792w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206-300x224.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206-705x527.png 705w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206-450x336.png 450w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Kings-Cross-bridge-and-Chichester-e1628095552206-768x574.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 792px) 100vw, 792px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-516\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 9. Augustus Pugin, Contrasts, Kings Cross Battle Bridge and Chichester Cross in West Sussex.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div><\/section><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock  av_inherit_color'  style='font-size:14px; color:#4f2707; '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Ruskin (1819-1900) was another social reformist who believed that art and architecture embodied the conditions of the society that produced them. Like Pugin, he was opposed to the poisonous effects of industrialism and Britain, which he contrasted with what he believed to be the simplicity and harmony of Medieval society. This worldview stood at the heart of Ruskin&#8217;s <em>The Stones of Venice<\/em>, published in three volumes from 1851 to 1853. In this text, Ruskin provided a survey of Venetian architecture from the Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance eras, whose forms expressed the values of spirituality, sincerity, purity, and morality.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref1\">[58]<\/a> Above all, he championed Gothic architecture for its organic, functional, and harmonious appearance. <a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref2\">[59]<\/a> For Ruskin, the art and culture of Venice served as an aspirational model for England, which had been corrupted by industrial modes of production, a capitalist economy, and the abandonment of Christianity. Throughout the 1850s, he continued to publish pamphlets on the Italian masters for the Arundel Society, whose objective was to &#8220;diffuse a knowledge of the most important remains of painting&#8221; and &#8220;to elevate the standard of taste in England.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref3\">[60]<\/a> In all of these texts, Ruskin upheld Italy as a standard against which modern artists should measure themselves and a model for them to emulate.<\/p>\n<p>Leighton began working on <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em> in 1853, the year the last installment of <em>The Stones of Venice<\/em> appeared. We know that he was inspired by Ruskin: in a letter to his mother that year, he wrote, &#8220;I long to find myself again face to face with nature, to follow it, to watch it and copy it, closely, faithfully ingenuously, as Ruskin suggests, choosing nothing and rejecting nothing.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref4\">[61]<\/a> Here Leighton appears to refer to Ruskin\u2019s 1842 book <em>Modern Painters, <\/em>in which he urged artists to devote themselves to the accurate documentation of nature, which he believed would reunite humanity with one another and with God, and would thereby resolve the degeneration of British art.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref5\">[62]<\/a> It is clear from Ruskin\u2019s appreciative gloss on Leighton\u2019s painting, cited above, that he recognized its congruence with his ideas. Ruskin went on in his <em>Academy Notes <\/em>to say that &#8220;the great secret of the Venetians was their simplicity. [&#8230;] Everything in their art is done as well as it <em>can <\/em>be done.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref6\">[63]<\/a> For Ruskin, then, Leighton\u2019s painting embodied the simplicity and faithfulness to nature that he associated with Venetian painting. He also singled out for praise the accuracy of Gothic architectural elements in the painting\u2019s background, writing that &#8220;the Church of San Miniato [is] strictly accurate in every detail &#8230; the architecture of the shrine on the wall is studied from thirteenth-century Gothic.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref7\">[64]<\/a> Ruskin cited these elements to defend Leighton against critics who took issue with the painting\u2019s composition:<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;The painting before us has been objected to, because it seems broken up into bits. Precisely the same objection would hold, and in very nearly the same degree, against the best works of the Venetians. All faithful colorists&#8217; work, in figure-painting, has a look of sharp separation between part and part.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref8\">[65]<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In the passage, Ruskin defended the segmented nature of <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna<\/em>, arguing that its separation made it readable for its narrative content. Ruskin argued that Leighton&#8217;s use of color actually worked to his advantage; as is clear in Ruskin&#8217;s positive comments, he felt that the painting exemplified the \u201cpurest principles of Venetian art.\u201d<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref9\">[66]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Ruskin praised Pre-Raphaelite painters for the same qualities of simplicity and truth that he saw in Leighton\u2019s art.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref10\">[67]<\/a> The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in 1848 by a group of students in protest against the academic conventionalism that dominated the Royal Academy. They attributed the decline of British painting to the rote emulation of the principles of the late Renaissance. Instead, they modeled their art on works before the time of Raphael, looking to the purportedly na\u00efve, pure, and sincere qualities of the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref11\">[68]<\/a> Their ultimate goal was to formulate a new way of seeing that did not rely on the traditional practice of imitation, but derived from direct observation of nature.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref12\">[69]<\/a> They promulgated these ideas in their publication <em>The Germ<\/em>; an essay entitled &#8220;The Purpose and Tendency of Early Italian Art&#8221; argued that<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8220;An unprejudiced spectator of the recent progress and main direction of Art in England will have observed, as a great change in the character of productions of the modern school, a marked attempt to lead the taste of the public into a new channel by producing pure transcripts and faithful studies from nature, instead of conventionalities and feeble reminisces from the Old Masters[&#8230;]&#8221;<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref13\"><strong>[70]<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The essay suggests that the Pre-Raphaelites were far more interested in looking to nature as the basis of their work rather than merely copying the conventions from the &#8220;Old Masters,&#8221; which they hoped would raise the artistic tastes of the modern British public.<\/p>\n<p>The Pre-Raphaelites\u2019 vision of the Renaissance is exemplified in William Holman Hunt&#8217;s 1849 painting <em>Rienzi <\/em>(Figure 10)<em>. <\/em>The painting&#8217;s subject was taken from the 1835 novel <em>Rienzi, the Last of the Roman Tribunes, <\/em>by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, about the Roman papal notary Cola di Rienzi (1313-1354).<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref14\">[71]<\/a> The painting depicts Rienzi, the future liberator of Rome, vowing to avenge his brother&#8217;s death by friendly fire with a member of the opposing Orsini family of Rome.<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref15\">[72]<\/a> The work visualizes the moment following the death; as Rienzi&#8217;s brother lay slain on the ground, Rienzi raises his fist in an impassioned cry of vengeance. The painting reflects many notable qualities of Early Italian art, such as vibrant colors and strong usage of light and shade. As typical of the Pre-Raphaelites, the work&#8217;s emotionally fraught, suspended moment, conveys powerful storytelling techniques and expressiveness. While similar in some ways to <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna,<\/em> the work operates differently in its usage of Renaissance principles. As is evident in <em>Rienzi, <\/em>the Pre-Raphaelites were interested in borrowing from the Renaissance for their emotional storytelling components. Whereas <em>Rienzi <\/em>was interested in its attention to emotional detail, <em>Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>was Leighton&#8217;s attempt to faithfully adopt Venetian painting principles to bring Vasari&#8217;s tale to life.<\/p>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_498\" style=\"width: 1608px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-498\" class=\"wp-image-498 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1598\" height=\"1128\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM.png 1598w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-300x212.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-1024x723.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-768x542.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-1536x1084.png 1536w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-1500x1059.png 1500w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-260x185.png 260w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-705x498.png 705w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1836\/2021\/08\/Screen-Shot-2021-05-21-at-8.10.03-PM-450x318.png 450w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1598px) 100vw, 1598px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-498\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10. William Holman Hunt, Rienzi, 1849, oil on canvas, 34 x 48 in, Private Collection<\/p><\/div><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<p>While Leighton and the Pre-Raphaelites emulated Renaissance art, and won equal admiration from Ruskin, not all contemporary viewers equated them. A critic writing in the <em>Athenaeum <\/em>praised Leighton\u2019s<em> Cimabue&#8217;s Celebrated Madonna <\/em>as &#8220;One of the finest pictures in the Exhibition\u201d of 1855, \u201cpainted in the true, as distinguished from the modern, Pre-Raphaelite style.&#8221;<a href=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/endnotes\/\" name=\"_ftnref16\">[73]<\/a> For this viewer, Leighton achieved a \u201ctrue\u201d or faithful revival of Renaissance principles as distinct from the false, \u201cmodern\u201d pictures of the Pre-Raphaelites. This comment indicates the complexity of Victorians\u2019 attitudes toward the Renaissance and the extent of disagreement about its essential artistic principles. For at least some viewers, including Ruskin, the painting\u2019s purity, earnestness and simplicity had the power to transform contemporary society\u2014a quality that surely appealed to its most famous viewers, Victoria and Albert.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding first  \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/section-1-frederic-leightons-cimabues-celebrated-madonna\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue874' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nPrevious&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div><\/p>\n<div class=\"flex_column av_one_half  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding   \" style='border-radius:0px; '><span class=\"av_font_icon avia_animate_when_visible av-icon-style-  avia-icon-pos-center \" style=\"color:#000000; border-color:#000000;\"><a href='https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/queen-victorias-purchase-of-the-painting\/'   class='av-icon-char' style='font-size:40px;line-height:40px;' aria-hidden='true' data-av_icon='\ue875' data-av_iconfont='entypo-fontello' data-avia-icon-tooltip=\"&lt;br \/&gt;\nNext section&lt;br \/&gt;\n\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":3580,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-17","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/17","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3580"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=17"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/17\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/queenvictoriacimabue\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=17"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}]