[{"id":733,"date":"2021-03-30T15:24:58","date_gmt":"2021-03-30T15:24:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=733"},"modified":"2021-03-31T16:13:49","modified_gmt":"2021-03-31T16:13:49","slug":"volume-18-2020","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/volume-18-2020\/","title":{"rendered":"Volume 18 (2020)"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover.jpg\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-751 size-medium\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-232x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"232\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-232x300.jpg 232w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-791x1024.jpg 791w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-768x994.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-1187x1536.jpg 1187w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-695x900.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover-116x150.jpg 116w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Silk-Road-Cover.jpg 1545w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 232px) 100vw, 232px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/The-Silk-Road-vol.-18-2020-low-resolution-1.pdf\">Full issue<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/The-Silk-Road-vol.-18-2020-hi-resolution-1.pdf\">high resolution (41 MB)<\/a>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/The-Silk-Road-vol.-18-2020-low-resolution-1.pdf\">lower resolution (20 MB)<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/From-the-Editor-1.pdf\">From the Editor<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Waugh-Kashgar-photo-essay.pdf\">Kashgar: Lost in the Mists of Time\u2014A Photo Essay<\/a><\/span><br \/>\nDaniel C. Waugh<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Leslie-Mausoleum-Shahzada-Abdullah.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Conservation of the Mausoleum of Shahzada Abdullah in Kuhandiz, Herat<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nJolyon Leslie<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Dreyer-Turfan-files-Berlin.pdf\">The &#8220;Turfan Files&#8221; in the Museum of Asian Art, Berlin<\/a><\/span><br \/>\nCaren Dreyer<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Kim-Stone-Joint-Metal-Clamps.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">A Study of Stone-joint Metal Clamps in China and Korea during the 6th-8th Centuries<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nHongnam Kim<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Chen-China-in-Medieval-Muslim-literature.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Appellations of China in Medieval Muslim Literature<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nChen Chunxiao<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Man-True-Origins-Mongols.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">The True Origin of the Mongols?<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nJohn Man<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Villa-Italian-Traveler-Kafiristan.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Piero Morandi, An Italian Traveler in Kafiristan<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nLuca Villa<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">NOTICES AND REVIEWS<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Miniaev-obituary.pdf\">In Memoriam: Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev<i><\/i><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nDaniel C. Waugh<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Timothy-May-review-of-Baumer-History-of-Central-Asia-vol-4.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Christoph Baumer, <\/span><i style=\"color: #0000ff\">The History of Central Asia. Vol. 4:\u00a0<\/i><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><i>The<\/i><\/span><i style=\"color: #0000ff\">\u00a0Age of Decline and Revival<\/i><\/a><br \/>\nTimothy May<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Morris-Rossabi-review-of-Biran-et-al-Along-the-Silk-Roads-in-Mongol-Eurasia.pdf\">Michael Biran et al., eds., <em>Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals<\/em><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nMorris Rossabi<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Michael-Drompp-review-of-Huber-Lives-of-Sogdians-Medieval-China.pdf\">Moritz Huber, <em>Lives of Sogdians in Medieval China<\/em><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nMichael Drompp<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Robert-Middleton-review-of-Kreutzmann-Hunza-Matters.pdf\">Hermann Kreutzmann<\/a><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/13-Kaim-Review-of-Urban-Cultures-of-Central-Asia.pdf\">, <em>Hunza Matters: Bordering and Ordering between Ancient and New Silk Roads<\/em><i><\/i><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nRobert Middleton<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Lilla-Russell-Smith-review-of-Sogdian-Smithsonian-exhibition.pdf\">Freer and Sackler Galleries (Smithsonian)<\/a><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Lilla-Russell-Smith-review-of-Sogdian-Smithsonian-exhibition.pdf\">, <em>The Sogdians: Influencers on the Silk Road<\/em><i><\/i><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nLilla Russell-Smith<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Book-and-Journal-Notices.pdf\">Book and Journal Notices<\/a><\/span><br \/>\nCompiled by Daniel C. Waugh<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2021\/03\/Waugh-Hagia-Sophia-photo-essay.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Appendix: Hagia Sophia\u2014A Photo Essay<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nDaniel C. Waugh<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Full issue high resolution (41 MB)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0lower resolution (20 MB) From the Editor Kashgar: Lost in the Mists of Time\u2014A Photo Essay Daniel C. Waugh Conservation of the Mausoleum of Shahzada Abdullah in Kuhandiz, Herat Jolyon Leslie The &#8220;Turfan Files&#8221; in the Museum of Asian Art, Berlin Caren Dreyer A Study of [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-733","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/733","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=733"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/733\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=733"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":718,"date":"2020-03-03T18:56:17","date_gmt":"2020-03-03T18:56:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=718"},"modified":"2020-03-06T00:50:46","modified_gmt":"2020-03-06T00:50:46","slug":"volume-17-2019","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/volume-17-2019\/","title":{"rendered":"Volume 17 (2019)"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-719\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-232x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"234\" height=\"303\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-232x300.jpg 232w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-768x994.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-791x1024.jpg 791w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-695x899.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/Cover-jpg-small-116x150.jpg 116w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 234px) 100vw, 234px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/SR-v17-2019-low-res.pdf\">Full issue<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/SR-v17-2019-high-res.pdf\">high resolution (30 MB)<\/a>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<a style=\"color: #ff0000\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/SR-v17-2019-low-res.pdf\">lower resolution (11 MB)<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/1-From-the-Editor.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">From the Editor<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/2-Mertens-Did-Richthofen-Really-Coin-the-Silk-Road.pdf\">Did Richthofen Really Coin &#8220;the Silk Road&#8221;?<\/a><\/span><br \/>\nMatthias Mertens<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/3-Lee-An-Interview-with-Roderick-Whitfield.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">An Interview with Roderick Whitfield on the Stein Collection in the British Museum<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nSonya S. Lee<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/4-Villa-Faces-of-the-Buddha.pdf\">Faces of the Buddha: Lorenzo Pull\u00e8 and the Museo Indiano in Bologna, 1907-35<\/a><\/span><br \/>\nLuca Villa<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/5-Zhang-Knotted-Carpets-from-the-Taklamakan.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Knotted Carpets from the Taklamakan: A Medium of Ideological and Aesthetic Exchange on the Silk Road, 700 BCE-700 CE<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nZhang He<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/6-Yatsenko-Some-Notes-on-Sogdian-Costume.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Some Notes on Sogdian Costume in Early Tang China<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nSergey A. Yatsenko<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/7-Jacobs-Analysis-of-Modern-Chinese-Colophons.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">An Analysis of Modern Chinese Colophons on the Dunhuang Manuscripts<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nJustin M. Jacobs<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/8-Follender-Camel-Fairs-in-India.pdf\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff\">Camel Fairs in India: A Photo Essay<\/span><\/a><br \/>\nHarvey Follender<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">BOOK REVIEWS<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/9-Whitfield-Review-of-Splenger-Fruit-from-the-Sands.pdf\">Robert N. Spengler III, <em>Fruit from the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Food We Eat<\/em><i><\/i><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nSusan Whitfield<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/10-Rumschlag-Review-of-Allsen-Steppe-and-the-Sea.pdf\">Thomas T. Allsen, <em>The Steppe and the Sea: Pearls in the Mongol Empire<\/em><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nSamuel Rumschlag<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/11-Halperin-Review-of-Hautala-Crusaders-Missionaries-Nomads.pdf\">Roman Hautala, <em>Crusaders, Missionaries, and Eurasian Nomads in the 13th-14th Centuries<\/em><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nCharles J. Halperin<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/12-Halperin-Review-of-Zimonyi-Medieval-Nomads-in-Europe.pdf\">Istv<\/a><\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/12-Halperin-Review-of-Zimonyi-Medieval-Nomads-in-Europe.pdf\">\u00e1n Zimonyi, <em>Medieval Nomads in Eastern Europe<\/em><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nCharles J. Halperin<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/13-Kaim-Review-of-Urban-Cultures-of-Central-Asia.pdf\">Baumer and Nov<\/a><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/12-Halperin-Review-of-Zimonyi-Medieval-Nomads-in-Europe.pdf\">\u00e1<\/a><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/02\/13-Kaim-Review-of-Urban-Cultures-of-Central-Asia.pdf\">k, eds., <em>Urban Cultures of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Karakhanids<\/em><i><\/i><\/a><\/span><br \/>\nBarbara Kaim<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">JOURNAL AND CONFERENCE NOTICES<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/14-Notices.pdf\"><em>Literature and History of the Western Regions<\/em> \u897f\u57df\u6587\u53f2, vol. XII (June 2018)<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/14-Notices.pdf\"><em>Literature and History of the Western Regions<\/em> \u897f\u57df\u6587\u53f2, vol. XIII (June 2019)<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/14-Notices.pdf\"><em>Bulletin of the Asia Institute<\/em>, vol. 29 (2019)<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/14-Notices.pdf\">&#8220;Before the Silk Road: Eurasian Interactions in the First Millennium BC,&#8221; Heidelberg, Oct. 28-29, 2019<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><a style=\"color: #0000ff\" href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2020\/03\/14-Notices.pdf\">&#8220;Dunhuang and Cultural Contact along the Silk Road,&#8221; Budapest, May 2-3, 2019<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Full issue high resolution (30 MB)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0lower resolution (11 MB) From the Editor Did Richthofen Really Coin &#8220;the Silk Road&#8221;? Matthias Mertens An Interview with Roderick Whitfield on the Stein Collection in the British Museum Sonya S. Lee Faces of the Buddha: Lorenzo Pull\u00e8 and the Museo Indiano in Bologna, 1907-35 Luca [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-718","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/718","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=718"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/718\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=718"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":667,"date":"2019-03-29T19:25:49","date_gmt":"2019-03-29T19:25:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=667"},"modified":"2019-03-30T00:48:19","modified_gmt":"2019-03-30T00:48:19","slug":"v16_2018_rodionova_frenkel","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_rodionova_frenkel\/","title":{"rendered":"On the Northern Branch of the Great Silk Road: A Celadon Dish from the Excavations at Novgorod the Great"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Marina Anatol&#8217;evna Rodionova<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">Novgorod State Museum<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Iakov Viktorovich Frenkel&#8217;<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">State Hermitage Museum<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Histories of the \u201cSilk Roads\u201d generally have devoted too little attention to evidence about Eurasian exchange found in the northern reaches of Eastern Europe. Much has been written about the significant flow of Middle Eastern and Central Asian silver into that region during the Viking Age without necessarily connecting it to broader aspects of Silk Road history. Other evidence\u2014for example, textiles, glass, and ceramics\u2014is rarer, but can reveal a great deal about interactions with the East involving medieval towns such as Novgorod, whose connections with the Hanseatic league form a significant chapter in the history of European trade. Even a single find, such as a Chinese celadon recently unearthed in the Novgorod Kremlin, sheds light on larger patterns of exchange, in this case ones dating to the period of Mongol rule over the Russian lands. The discussion here opens with an overview of Novgorod\u2019s early history and the city\u2019s important place along the trade routes, then proceeds to analyze in detail the celadon in order to pinpoint its origin, and concludes by contextualizing it with reference to other evidence about the dissemination of such celadons and the widespread interest in its decorative motif of two fish.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Novgorod in Early Russian History<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Novgorod is one of the most ancient of Russian cities with a thousand-year history. It arose on the shores of the Volkhov River not far from its source at Lake Il\u2019men in the northwestern territory of Ancient Rus [<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_669\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-669\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-669\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-300x294.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-300x294.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-768x752.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-1024x1003.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-695x681.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig1-153x150.jpg 153w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-669\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. The Novgorod lands in the second half of the 12th to the first half of the 13th centuries. (After: A. N. Nasonov \u201cRusskaia Zemlia\u201d i obrazovanie territorii Drevnerusskogo gosudarstva [Moskva, 1951]: foldout facing p. 96)<\/p><\/div>The location was a strategic one in the network of river routes and portages which provided access to the Baltic Sea in the West, to the Black Sea in the South, and to the Caspian to the Southeast (via the Volga River). The city is first mentioned in the oldest chronicles under the year 859 (<em>NPL<\/em> 1950: 106\u20137) in connection with the summoning of the semi-legendary Viking, Prince Riurik. However, the archaeological evidence from Novgorod proper provides dates no earlier than the second quarter of the 10th century. As the prominent archaeologist Evgenii Nikolaevich Nosov has now persuasively demonstrated from his excavations that date back over several decades, the \u201cfounding\u201d settlement, probably the one established by Riurik, was just to the south of the current city at the hillfort site, which in the 19th century came to be known as Riurikovo [<strong>Fig. 2<\/strong>]. In a region which by the 9th century had begun to be settled by Slavic tribes, Riurikovo was occupied by the social elite, including a contingent of Varangians (soldiers, traders, and craftsmen), and became the princely residence with military-administrative and trading and craft functions. In the 9th\u201310th centuries, the site was defended by wooden walls and moats, which, however, soon ceased to function when Novgorod proper was established. The designation \u201cNovgorod\u201d (\u2018new town\u2019) distinguished it from the \u201cold\u201d one of the Riurik hillfort (Nosov et al. 2017).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_670\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-670\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-670\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2-768x508.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2-695x460.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2-227x150.jpg 227w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig2.jpg 991w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-670\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 2. View of Rurikovo Gorodische (lit. Rurik\u2019s Hillfort). (After: Agency \u00abSherif\u00bb, www.novgorod.ru)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Novgorod\u2019s subsequent development as a significant political, economic, and cultural center is to be connected with the place it occupied as part of what we call the Early Russian State, whose political and religious center was established in Kiev (Ianin 2013: 11). The conversion to Byzantine Orthodox Christianity by Kievan prince Vladimir Sviatoslavich in the late 10th century led to the establishment of several bishoprics in the regional princely capitals, one of the most important of them being Novgorod, where the new location of the town was to be the Christian center. That location\u2014the fortress\u2014was one of the elevated areas on the left bank of the Volkhov, which, as archaeology has demonstrated, was already settled by the third quarter of the 10th century [<strong>Fig. 3<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_671\" style=\"width: 10212px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-671\" class=\"size-full wp-image-671\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig3.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"10202\" height=\"5583\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-671\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 3. A drawing based on the depiction of late medieval Novgorod on an icon of \u201cThe Sign of the Mother of God.\u201d The Kremlin side of the city is below, with a double ring of fortifications, the inner one containing the archbishop\u2019s residence and cathedral. The \u201ctrading side\u201d of the city (east of the river) is at top. (After: \u0410.F. V\u0435ltm\u0430n, \u201cO gospodine Novgorode Velikom\u201d [About Novgorod the Great]. \u041c\u043eskva, 1834)<\/p><\/div>The first Christian churches appeared there in 989: the residential stone church of Ioakim and Anna and the 13-domed wooden cathedral of Sancta Sophia (the Holy Wisdom) (<em>PSRL<\/em>, 3: 208; Amvrosii 1807: 171; Makarii 1860: 40; <em>PSRL<\/em>, 7: 155). At the beginning of the 11th century, Prince Iaroslav Vladimirovich moved his residence from the hillfort north to the right bank of the Volkhov, where, from the first half of the 11th into the beginning of the 12th century, the princely court was located near the market [<strong>Figs. 4<\/strong>, <strong>5<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_672\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-672\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-672\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-300x186.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"186\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-300x186.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-768x477.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-1024x637.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-695x432.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig4-241x150.jpg 241w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-672\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 4. Sunrise view across the Volkhov to the \u201ctrading side\u201d of Novgorod, with the remains of the row of merchants\u2019 shops built in the 18th century. The prince\u2019s church of St. Nicholas, built in 1113, is in the upper center, shown here prior to its modern restoration. (Photo taken in 1968, courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_673\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-673\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-673\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-300x242.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"242\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-300x242.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-768x618.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-1024x825.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-695x560.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig5-186x150.jpg 186w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-673\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 5. The Church of St. Nicholas in the prince\u2019s court, here restored to its original five-domed appearance. View from the southeast. The porch on the left was added in modern times. (Photo courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Later, as the relationship between the princes and the city changed, the princely residence would return to the hillfort. Novgorod continued to develop after Iaroslav succeeded to the throne in Kiev. In 1044, fortifications (the Kremlin) were erected on the left bank of the Volkhov at the same time that the re-building of the Cathedral of Sancta Sophia as a stone structure began (<em>NPL<\/em> 1950: 181) [<strong>Figs. 6<\/strong>, <strong>7<\/strong>]. The fortifications enclosed the archbishop\u2019s court, which adjoined the cathedral [<strong>Fig. 8<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_674\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-674\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-674\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-300x116.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"116\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-300x116.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-768x298.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-1024x397.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-695x269.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig6-387x150.jpg 387w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-674\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 6. The Novgorod Kremlin at sunrise, view from the northeast looking across the Volkhov River in 1968. (Photo courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_675\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-675\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-675\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-300x217.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"217\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-300x217.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-768x555.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-1024x740.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-695x502.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7-207x150.jpg 207w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig7.jpg 1949w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-675\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 7. The Novgorod Kremlin from the air in 2003. (Photo courtesy of A.I. Orlov)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_676\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-676\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-676\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-768x509.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-1024x678.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-695x460.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig8-226x150.jpg 226w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-676\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 8. The archbishop\u2019s chambers and bell tower. (Photo courtesy of A.I. Orlov)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Novgorod\u2019s hinterland extended way to the north and east, embracing resource-rich forested areas which were the source of furs, honey, and salt and where some agriculture could be developed profitably despite challenging ecological conditions. In the 11th and 12th centuries, Novgorod\u2019s position as the northern outpost on the \u201croute from the Varangians to the Greeks\u201d meant that economic ties with Kiev and beyond to Byzantium were especially important [<strong>Fig. 9<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_677\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig9_recaptioned.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-677\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-677\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig9_recaptioned-300x274.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"274\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig9_recaptioned-300x274.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig9_recaptioned-164x150.jpg 164w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig9_recaptioned.jpg 447w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-677\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 9. The important trade routes of Novgorod. (After: Rybina 2009: 30)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The precise chronology which archaeology has documented concerning trade in such items as glass beads, bracelets, and walnuts illustrates the rise and eventual decline in this route. As early as the late 11th century, merchants from Gotland in the Baltic established an outpost in Novgorod; relations with the German trading cities that would eventually form the Hanseatic league continued to develop and eventually were formalized with treaties (Rybina 2009). The trade with the West flourished in the 13th\u201315th centuries, despite the Mongol conquest of the other Russian principalities.<\/p>\n<p>In the history of early Rus, Novgorod developed a distinctive set of political institutions, often termed a \u201crepublic\u201d. By the 12th century, princely power in the city was limited by treaty. The popular assembly (known as the <em>veche<\/em>) had some say in policy, but the real secular power came to be vested in an oligarchy of wealthy families, from whose members the mayors (<em>posadniki<\/em>) of the city were selected (Ianin 2003: 7\u20138). Foreign and domestic politics were under the control of the archbishop, even though Novgorod was not a theocratic state. The Novgorod archbishop occupied a particularly prominent position in the Orthodox church hierarchy in Russia, contributing to the fact that, with the decline of the Kievan state, Novgorod would retain its independence down to the point when it was incorporated into Muscovy in the late 15th century.<\/p>\n<p>Medieval Novgorod has always attracted the attention of scholars, in part due to the richness of cultural documentation, better preserved there than in any other prominent old Russian city. Since the city was never sacked by the Mongols, a significant portion of the manuscript books left to us from early Russia survived there, including the oldest dated book of the Gospels and the oldest manuscript of a Russian chronicle. Indeed, the extent and continuity of the tradition of chronicle writing in Novgorod are one reason we can document the city\u2019s history so precisely. Novgorod also is the location of the oldest preserved masonry church in Rus, the Cathedral of Sancta Sophia [<strong>Fig. 10<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_678\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-678\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-678\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-768x540.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-1024x719.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-695x488.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig10-214x150.jpg 214w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-678\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 10. The Cathedral of Sancta Sophia (1045-1050) from the east. (Photo courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>A large number of other churches were still standing down into modern times, decorated in many cases with some of the best preserved mural paintings and from which some of the oldest and most important icons have survived. No other old Russian city has as complete a collection of monuments of architecture and monumental painting. Of all the buildings of Ancient Rus of the 11th\u201315th centuries which have come down to the present, nearly half belong to the Novgorod school.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_679\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-679\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-679\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1-300x185.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"185\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1-300x185.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1-768x473.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1-695x428.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1-244x150.jpg 244w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig11_alt1.jpg 794w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-679\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 11. The Trinity excavation of the early 21st century. (Photo courtesy of S.A. Orlov)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Arguably the most important contribution to our knowledge about Novgorod has come from archaeology [<strong>Fig. 11<\/strong>]. Novgorod has been studied more than any other early Russian city (Thompson 1967; Brisbane 1992; Brisbane and Gaimster 2001; Brisbane et. al. 2012). It became a kind of unique archaeological training ground where the methodology of excavation of urban settlements over wide areas was developed. The first regular excavations with the goal of a comprehensive scientific study of the cultural layer of Novgorod began in 1932. The richness of archaeological documentation is due to the fact that the water-saturated cultural layer, in some places as thick as 9 to 10 meters, has preserved beautifully organic materials. As was true of other medieval Russian cities, residential housing was largely made of wood; frequent fires (whose dates often can be established precisely from the chronicles) meant that houses were re-built on top of the remains of the earlier ones. As the level of debris in the streets rose, and given the muddy ground, Novgorodians laid down log walkways, which then were renewed every two or three decades [<strong>Fig. 12<\/strong>]. Analysis of tree rings for dating (dendrochronology) has thus made it possible to date more precisely than might be possible by other methodologies each of the nearly 30 strata in the deepest cultural layer of the city, starting in the late 10th century and going down into the 15th.<\/p>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_680\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-680\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-680\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2-300x229.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"229\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2-300x229.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2-768x587.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2-695x531.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2-196x150.jpg 196w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig12_alt2.jpg 918w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-680\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 12. Nerevskiy archeological dig of 1951-1962. Pavement cut of Velikaya street (After: B.\u0410. \u041a\u043elchin and V.L. Ianin, \u201cArkheologii Novgoroda 50 let\u201d [Fiftieth anniversary of Novgorod\u2019s archeology]. \u041c\u043eskva, 1982: 30, fig. 9)<\/p><\/div>As a result, it has been possible to document how the city grew. The material remains have provided some context to correlate with the changes in the political organization of the city, in which there were \u201cends\u201d or districts which administered autonomous regions. Already in the 12th century the chronicles report the existence of three city \u201cends\u201d: Slavenskii on the trading side (east of the Volkhov), Nerevskii and Liudin on the Sophia (west) side (<em>NPL<\/em> 1950: 34), to which later were added two more\u2014Plotnitskii and Zagorodskii. The streets of the city were oriented toward the main trading thoroughfare, the Volkhov River. As the inhabited area expanded, residential patterns changed: where earlier layers were occupied by often large residences presumably owned by the elite, the same plots later came to have more modest dwellings. In at least one case, what was probably the residence of one of the elite mayors had stone foundations, to support what probably was a multi-story structure. Wood paved the streets, was used to construct bridges, and also was the material used for the hydraulic system of water pipes and catch-basins.<\/p>\n<p>The damp soil preserved a huge range of objects of everyday life: wooden dishes (some clearly turned on lathes) and table utensils, leather footwear, toys, chessmen, votive figurines, iron padlocks, and knives made of a sophisticated amalgam of hard and soft metal. Plant remains and animal bones provide a good idea of the local diet and how it changed over time, the evidence attesting in part to the importance of long-distance trade in valuable products not produced locally. While some of the most significant trade items (for example, the furs) are no longer extant, there is plenty of evidence regarding commerce: scales, weights, and enough of the remains of boats to suggest that many of them had a very substantial cargo capacity.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_681\" style=\"width: 238px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-681\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-681\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-228x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"228\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-228x300.jpg 228w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-768x1009.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-779x1024.jpg 779w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-695x913.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13-114x150.jpg 114w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig13.jpg 1949w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 228px) 100vw, 228px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-681\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 13. Birchbark document Nos. 963, 964, and 965, from the Kremlin excavation. No. 963 dates to 1416-1421 and is addressed to Archbishop Simeon, who occupied the see in those years. No. 964 is dated to the 1340s-1390s, and No. 965 to the period from 1349 to the 1360s. (After: Rodionova 2017: 79, fig. 30)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Among the most spectacular of the archaeological finds are those related to writing. Beginning with the first discovery in 1951, more than 1,100 birchbark documents have been found, attesting to a much wider spread of literacy in the population than had been previously known [<strong>Fig. 13<\/strong>]. Not just the elite, but individuals in lower classes were literate. Women composed letters and received them; one set of the birchbarks illustrates the learning process of a child, who also, as children are wont to do, drew pictures and doodles. Taken together with the now meticulously documented graffiti scratched on the walls of the Cathedral of Sancta Sophia, the birchbarks attest to the wide range of functions for ordinary writing: personal letters, contracts, business correspondence, and much more. The birchbarks continue to be found in the ongoing excavations in Novgorod; their chronology can be established by the dendrochronology for the logs and beams of the layers in which they were preserved. The most striking recent find regarding writing in Novgorod was the discovery in 2000 of a wax-coated tablet on which was inscribed a portion of one of the psalms [<strong>Fig. 14<\/strong>]. The find has been dated to the end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century, thus making it the earliest relatively securely dated example of substantial writing to have been found in early Rus.<\/p>\n<p>By any medieval measure, Novgorod was a large and rich city which traded with both East and West. In it, a distinctive Christian culture formed, nurtured by Slavic as well as Byzantine sources. It was a center of book learning which served the needs of the numerous churches and monasteries and became a treasure house of old Russian applied arts and monumental painting. The ongoing archaeology in Novgorod continues to document ordinary aspects of daily life as well as highlight unique objects that may shed light on the socially prestigious areas of the city. The next section of our article is devoted to just such a find.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_682\" style=\"width: 258px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig14.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-682\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-682\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig14-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig14-248x300.jpg 248w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig14-124x150.jpg 124w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig14.jpg 405w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 248px) 100vw, 248px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-682\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 14. The tablet with the text from the Psalms inscribed with a stylus on wax. (Photo courtesy of S.A. Orlov)<\/p><\/div>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The Chinese Celadon Excavated in 2008<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In 2008, an excavation within cultural layers of the 14th century in the Kremlin unearthed five charred fragments of a Chinese celadon vessel, which, referring to the find spot, we shall subsequently term \u201cthe dish of the episcopal court\u201d [<strong>Figs. 15<\/strong>, <strong>16<\/strong>, <strong>17<\/strong>, <strong>18<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_683\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-683\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-683\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-300x95.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"95\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-300x95.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-768x243.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-1024x324.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-695x220.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15-474x150.jpg 474w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig15.jpg 1500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-683\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 15. The excavation in the Episcopal court of the Kremlin. (Photo courtesy of E.V. Gordjushcenkov)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_684\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-684\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-684\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-300x201.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"201\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-300x201.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-768x514.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-1024x685.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-695x465.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16-224x150.jpg 224w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig16.jpg 1530w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-684\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 16. The find spot of the celadon in the excavation. (Photo courtesy of E.V. Gordjushcenkov)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_685\" style=\"width: 212px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-685\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-685\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-202x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"202\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-202x300.jpg 202w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-768x1139.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-690x1024.jpg 690w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-695x1031.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17-101x150.jpg 101w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig17.jpg 1935w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 202px) 100vw, 202px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-685\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 17. The celadon dish from the episcopal court. Graphic reconstruction by L. A. Sokolova and T. V. Silaeva. (After: Rodionova 2017, fig. 143)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_686\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-686\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-686\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-300x179.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"179\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-300x179.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-768x459.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-1024x612.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-695x416.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18-251x150.jpg 251w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig18.jpg 1189w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-686\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 18. The celadon dish from the episcopal court: a) side view; b) views from above and below. (After: Rodionova 2017, fig. 144)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>While the range of distribution of Chinese medieval celadons is very broad (see below), Novgorod the Great is the northernmost location where excavations have uncovered such a ceramic. The previous finds of celadons in Novgorod consisted of small shards [<strong>Fig. 19<\/strong>] (Koval\u2019 1997a: 159, fig. 2; Rodionova and Frenkel\u2019 2012: 24, ill. 9; Rodionova 2017, fig. 149). The shards of this newly discovered celadon merit special attention, though, since it is possible to reconstruct the form of the dish and classify it with respect to existing typological schemes. Moreover, the context of the find allows us to date when it entered the cultural layer, and suggests that the last owner of the dish was likely a member of the religious elite of medieval Novgorod.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_688\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-688\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-688\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-300x114.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"114\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-300x114.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-768x293.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-1024x391.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20.jpg 1332w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-695x265.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig20-393x150.jpg 393w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-688\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 20. A Southern Song celadon from Zhejiang province with the shape of that found in the episcopal court in Novgorod. (After: Fang 1964, 558, No. 4)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The fragments of the celadon were found on the boundary of the second (1340\u20131360s) and third (1300\u20131340s) horizons of the medieval building of the episcopal court, under charred wooden planking. Four of the shards can be associated with a burned building (structures 9 and 10), which dendrochronology indicates was erected in 1300. A fifth shard lay in the same stratigraphic horizon, four meters to the south. The juxtaposition of chronicle data about fires in the bishop\u2019s court, the dendrochronological dates of the planks and building, the sphragistics (Ianin 1970) and numismatic finds makes possible an exact dating for the deposit of the celadon. In the fire of 1340, the celadon fell into the cultural layer; after some time the location of the fire of 1340 was covered by wooden flooring, which was subsequently damaged by fire in 1368.<\/p>\n<p>The dish of the episcopal court is made of dense gray body and covered with a thick transparent glaze of a light gray-green color. The glaze does not extend to the bottom of the circular base which has a gray-brown color. X-ray analysis revealed in the body a high iron and titanium content. The glaze was made according to a lime alkaline recipe. The colorants were iron and titanium. The vessel has a broad horizontal rim and its bowl rests on a circular base. The exterior surface of the dish is decorated by poorly delineated vertical fluting, while the smooth interior surface of the walls is covered with dense crackle. In the central \u201cmedallion\u201d (the inside bottom of the dish) is an underglaze relief depiction of two fish, placed head to tail to form a circle. There are various classification schemes which can be brought to bear in describing such celadons, beginning with observations about the external characteristics.<\/p>\n<p>The diameter of the dish is a bit less than 13 cm, its height 4.5 cm., and the diameter of the circular base 5.5 cm. On the basis of the measurement formula devised by Evgeniia Ivanovna Gel\u2019man, the dish of the episcopal court is to be classified as a dish of medium size designated by the generic term <em>bei<\/em> \u686e (\u201ccup\u201d) (Gel\u2019man 1996: 12\u201313). In the dictionary of Chinese ceramic terms, dishes analogous to the dish from the episcopal court are named <em>shuangyu xi<\/em> \u96d9\u9b5a\u6d17 (\u201ctwin-fish washer\u201d) (Wang 2002: 90). In the specialist literature such dishes also are known as <em>shuaqing xi<\/em> \u5237\u6e05\u6d17 (\u201cbrush washers\u201d), whereas the ones of larger size are <em>lianpen<\/em> \u81c9\u76c6 (\u201cwash basins\u201d) (Zhu and Wang 1963: 38, fig. 12; Liu and Xiong 1982: 64; Yu and Mei 1989: 76; Gyllensv\u00e4rd 1975: 104\u20135; Krahl 1994, 1: 299, No. 559). It is known that the Chinese art critic Wen Zhenheng \u6587\u9707\u4ea8 (1585\u20131645) used such Longquan \u9f8d\u6cc9 celadons with the <em>guan<\/em> \u5b98 glaze for cleaning brushes (Kuz\u2019menko 2009: 46).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_687\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-687\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-687\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-300x144.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"144\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-300x144.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-768x369.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-1024x492.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-695x334.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19-312x150.jpg 312w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig19.jpg 1662w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-687\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 19. Two celadon shards found in Novgorod: 1) from the Trinity excavation; 2) from the Nerev excavation. (After: Rodionova 2017, fig. 149)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The form of the given dish corresponds to the fourth type of the forms of dishes found in excavations of the medieval Longquan ceramic kilns in Zhejiang \u6d59\u6c5f province (Fang 1964: 558) [<strong>Fig. 20<\/strong>]. According to the work of Jan C. Wirgin (1970: 81, 83-84) about the decoration of medieval Chinese celadons, the surface decoration of the exterior and interior of the dish is characteristic for Longquan celadons of types Lc9 and Lc10. On the basis of classification of Chinese celadons found in the Golden Horde city of Bolgary (Poluboiarinova 2003: 155\u201359), the dish from the episcopal court is to be classified as semi-spherical, of small dimensions, with a broad flanged rim, variant 2, without incising, and with relief underglaze decoration.<\/p>\n<p>The \u201cmedallion\u201d of the dish of the episcopal court is decorated with an underglaze relief depiction of two fish. Such a technique in Chinese ceramic production is called <em>moyin tiehua<\/em> \u6a21\u5370\u8cbc\u82b1 (\u201cmolded decal\u201d) (Wang 2002: 213). The figures are prepared in molds and then attached to the surface of the vessel with a slip, after which they are covered with glaze. This technique, applied to celadons of the Song era, is mentioned in the late 18th-century work of Lan Pu \u85cd\u6d66, <em>Jingdezhen taolu<\/em> \u666f\u5fb7\u93ae\u9676\u9304 (<em>Pottery Records of Jingdezhen<\/em>) (Stuzhina 1970: 62). The common name for all the possible compositions of the figures of two fish in Chinese art is <em>shuangyu<\/em>, or \u201ctwin fish.\u201d Such compositions in China indicate the wish for connubial bliss (Ayers 1985: 61; Krahl 1994, I: 299, No. 559; Vestfalen and Krechetova 1947: 37, pl. V) and numerous progeny (Lubo-Lesnichenko 1975: 26), a belief that likely helps explain the popularity of the motif in the arts developed under the patronage of non-Chinese dynasties such as the Liao in north China [<strong>Fig. 21<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_689\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-689\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-689\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-300x124.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"124\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-300x124.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-768x317.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-1024x423.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-695x287.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig21-363x150.jpg 363w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-689\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 21. Two examples of Liao period (ca. early 12th century) gilded silver metalwork with the \u201ctwin-fish\u201d motif. Photographed in a special exhibition in the Hohhot Museum, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. (Photos courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The centrally symmetrical scheme of the \u201ctwin-fish\u201d motif is characteristic in particular for celadons of the Longquan family [<strong>Figs. 22<\/strong>, <strong>23<\/strong>] (Wirgin 1970: 83\u201384; Ayers 1985: 61, No. 38; Krahl 1994, 1: 299, No. 559; Wang 2002: 249) and become noteworthy from Southern Song times (Medley 1982: 150; Krahl 1994, 1: 298, No. 558). Other variants, including compositions with four fish arranged in a circle head-to-tail, are also known among Longquan celadons [<strong>Fig. 24<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_690\" style=\"width: 233px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-690\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-690\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-223x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"223\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-223x300.jpg 223w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-768x1032.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-762x1024.jpg 762w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-695x934.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22-112x150.jpg 112w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig22.jpg 1500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 223px) 100vw, 223px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-690\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 22. The \u201ctwin-fish\u201d motif in a celadon dish of the Longquan family. (After: Yu and Mei 1989, 78, fig. 11.1)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_691\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-691\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-691\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-300x134.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"134\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-300x134.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-768x343.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-1024x458.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-695x311.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23-336x150.jpg 336w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig23.jpg 2014w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-691\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 23. Two Longquan celadons from Zhejiang province with molded \u201ctwin-fish\u201d decoration: 1) from the collection of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, EA2008.16; 2) from the Macdonald Collection in the Durham (Eng.) University Oriental Museum, DUROM.1969.104.C. (Photos courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_692\" style=\"width: 222px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-692\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-692\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-212x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"212\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-695x983.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig24-106x150.jpg 106w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 212px) 100vw, 212px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-692\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 24. A Longquan celadon dish with molded decoration of four fish. Late 13th or early 14th \u0441entury. Topkapi Sarai Museum, Istanbul. TKS 15\/209. (After: Regina Krahl 1986, vol. 1, 257: no. 65)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>These external features then suggest that the celadon dish of the episcopal court corresponds most closely to the wares of the Lonqquan center of ceramic production in southwestern Zhejiang province in southern China (Wirgin 1970: 81\u201384; Wang 2002: 249). Moreover, analysis of the internal characteristics such as the composition of the ceramic body and the glazes offers further support.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_693\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-693\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-693\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-300x143.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"143\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-300x143.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-768x367.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-1024x489.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-695x332.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25-314x150.jpg 314w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig25.jpg 1711w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-693\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 25. Two Longquan celadon shards with the twin-fish motif from the excavations by Nils Palmgren in 1935\u201336. (After: Palmgren 1963: 113, ill 9; 117, ill. 8)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The making of celadons in Longquan began in the Northern Song period (Valenstein 1989: 102) and in other provinces of southern China (Krahl 1986: 33; Medley 1982: 147; Ry\u014dichi 1990: 184). Thus a huge family of southern Chinese celadons is to be attributed to Longquan and has stylistic associations with the aesthetic of Longquan even if not necessarily made in the Longquan kilns. The Longquan kilns have been extensively studied by archaeologists (Hobson 1924: 23; Palmgren 1963: 7; Zhu and Wang 1963; Li 1985: 53). These excavations uncovered many celadons close to the example from the episcopal court (Palmgren 1963: 113, No.\u00a09; 116\u2013117, No. 8; fig. 28: 26) [<strong>Fig. 25<\/strong>]; Zhu and Wang 1963: 37, fig. 12; Fang 1964: 558; Wirgin 1970: 83). Archaeometric methods make it possible to distinguish the production of locally situated kilns within Longquan, and to distinguish shards of the Song, Yuan, or Ming periods (Li 1985; Xie et al. 2009).<\/p>\n<p>The ceramic body of Longquan celadons consists of a mixture of kaolin-content \u201cChinese stone\u201d and high quality clay. Early Longquan celadons have shards of gray color. From the mid-Southern Song period, the majority of the Longquan kilns which have been studied produced celadons with shards of white color, similar to porcelain (Arapova 1977: 31, n. 3; Gyllensv\u00e4rd 1975: 94\u201395; Tokyo 1994: xvi). In the Yuan period, the shards of Longquan celadons again became primarily gray (Morgan 1991: 71), and under the Ming again approximated white (Fekhner 1956: 94, n. 3). In the first half of the Qing period genuine Longquan production was in decline, although in China and Japan porcelain imitations of Longquan celadons were being made (Arapova 1977: 20; Kanevskaia 2004: 8; Wood 2011: 76, 80\u201381).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Song period, Longquan glaze was alkaline; from the Southern Song time, it was prepared according to a lime-alkaline recipe composed of quartz sand, limestone, and organic ash (Valenstein 1989: 99; Wood 2011: 78). The composition of Longquan glazes has been frequently analyzed, with the indication that over time the components even of the lime-alkaline glazes changed (Li 1985: 59, tabl.\u00a05; Wood 2011: 76, 78). Longquan glaze was transparent or translucent. The color varied from blue (\u201cthe color of a duck\u2019s egg\u201d) to green-blue (\u201can ocean wave\u201d) and various shades of the gray-green spectrum (up to \u201colive-green\u201d) (Wood 2011: 77\u201378). At first the blue shade predominated; later it came to be replaced with gray-green. At the end of the Southern Song and beginning of the Yuan period the so-called \u201cplum-green\u201d glaze was used (Wang 2002: 163). The colorants were iron and titanium (in the bluish glazes, titanium was somewhat less than it was in the gray-green). The slightly matte appearance of the glaze was created by the combination of phosphorus present in the ash and the bubbles which formed in the glaze. For the attainment of a decorative effect, the glaze sometimes was covered with a network of crackling.<\/p>\n<p>These indicated characteristics of the ceramic body and glaze of Longquan celadons of the Yuan period are exactly those found in the celadon dish of the episcopal court, thus supporting the other evidence that it was made in the Yuan period. This analysis corresponds well with the chronology established from the archaeological context of the dish.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The Spread of Longquan Celadons across Asia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Celadons of the Longquan style\u2014dishes of medium and large size, plates, and saucers\u2014whose d\u00e9cor is similar to the d\u00e9cor of the dish from the episcopal court, were widespread. The chronology of the circulation of such dishes embraces the date of deposition of the dish from the episcopal court obtained from independent sources.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_694\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-694\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-694\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-300x298.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"298\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-300x298.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-768x763.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-1024x1018.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-695x691.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26-151x150.jpg 151w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig26.jpg 1745w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-694\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 26. A Yuan period Longquan celadon from a deposit found in the vicinity of Taojin. (After: Zhang 1987: 23, fig. 10)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Such celadons are found in China in excavations of the Longquan kilns of the Southern Song and Yuan periods (Palmgren 1963; Zhu and Wang 1963). There are a good many such dishes in deposits of ceramics from the Yuan period in the regions close to the centers of production. Thus in Jiangxi \u6c5f\u897f province, we know of two such deposits of the late Yuan period: a deposit found in Gao\u2019an \u9ad8\u5b89 district (Liu and Xiong 1982: 62, 64\u201366, 68, figs. 16, 20) and one found in 1984 in the vicinity of the city of Lean \u6a02\u5b89 (Yu and Mei 1989: 76, 78, fig. 11.1; pl. 7). Yet another deposit with such celadons of the Yuan period was found in the vicinity of the city of Taojin \u6dd8\u91d1 in neighboring Hunan \u6e56\u5357 province (Zhang 1987: 21, fig. 1.10; 3, fig.10) [<strong>Fig. 26<\/strong>]. Moreover, the cargo of thousands of celadons in the cargo vessel that sank at Sinan off Korean in 1323 en route, apparently, to Japan included celadons of interest to us with the paired depictions of fish: \u201c\u2026 pairs of fish in applique relief\u201d (Ayers 1978: 80; Carswell 2000: 108).<\/p>\n<p>Longquan celadons similar to the dish from the episcopal court were common not only in China during the Southern Song and Yuan periods but also widely across Asia and even into North Africa. Such celadons have been found in excavations in in Karakorum in Mongolia (Evtukhova 1965: 245); in Khara-Khoto (Rodionova and Frenkel\u2019 2012: 16, fig. 7; Rodionova 2017, ill. 145); in Iran (Morgan 1991: 70; pl. IV-d: A-D; pl. V-a: B, E; fig. 8: 36\u201350; fig. 7: 36, 44\u201345); in Fustat (old Cairo) in Egypt (Gyllensv\u00e4rd 1975: 104\u2013105; pl. 15.5\u20138; 110\u2013111; pl. 27.1, 2); and in Southeast Asia (Wirgin 1970: 83; Gyllensv\u00e4rd 1975: 111). Wherever it is possible to speak of more or less precise dating, such celadons date either to the Yuan period, or, in the case of Fustat in Egypt, more broadly, from the Southern Song to the Ming period. We note that such a dating somewhat differs from the dating obtained in the first instance on the basis of stylistic analysis.<\/p>\n<p>Also known are pseudo-celadon imitations of such dishes made in the Near East [<strong>Fig. 27<\/strong>], where the evocation of the fish motif included stylistically similar versions with two, three, and even four fish. At least some of these probably were produced under the Mongol Il-khanids and their immediate successors in Iran.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_695\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-695\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-695\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-300x75.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"75\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-300x75.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-768x192.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-1024x256.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-695x174.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig27-480x120.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-695\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 27. Middle-Eastern imitations of Chinese celadons with molded fish d\u00e9cor. Left to right: fritware dish, Iran, 14th century (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford: EA1978.2305); fritware, probably Iran, 14th century (British Museum: Godman Bequest, OA G284; OA 1931 2-17.1); fritware, possibly Nishapur or Tabriz (Iran), ca. 1450-1550 (Victoria and Albert Museum, London: C.10-1947). (Photos courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Indeed, the range of distribution of Chinese medieval celadons, often with evidence for the impact they had on local ceramic production, is very broad\u2014from the Russian Far East (Gel\u2019man et al 1996: 166\u201367) to Indonesia and the Philippines in the southeast (Troinitskii 1911: 7; Kverfel\u2019dt 1938: 189; Hobson 1924: 22), to the southwest in Africa south of the Sahara (Xia 1963: 17-19; Glukhareva and Denike 1948: 57; Carswell 2000: 64\u201365), to Western Europe (Kverfel\u2019dt 1938: 191; Wood 2011: 80) and Ancient Rus in the northeast (Koval\u2019 2017: 758).<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Celadons in Western Eurasia and Eastern Europe during the Yuan Period<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>On the territory of the former USSR west of the Urals, the earliest celadons from the end of the first millennium have been located in Transcaucasia, where they circulated through all of the Middle Ages (Kverfel\u2019dt 1938; Shelkovnikov 1954; Abilova 1956). The first celadons arrived in Transcaucasia most probably from the Near East, where they in turn had arrived from the end of the first millennium as a result of Arab maritime trade (Shelkovnikov 1954:\u00a0368; Poluboiarinova 2003: 155). On the east side of the Arabian peninsula, the first Yue-Yao celadons (Krahl 1994, 1: 180) appear in the 9th\u201310th centuries (Pirazzoli-t\u2019Serstevens 1988: 91\u201392, 105). At that time Yue-Yao wares appear as well in Transcaucasia (Shelkovnikov 1954: 371\u201372). As early as 1911, Sergei Nikolaevich Troinitskii wrote (1911: 7) about the coincidence of the presence of celadons outside of China proper and the presence of Chinese coins of the 10th\u201311th centuries. Later, Ernest Kondratovich Kverfel\u2019dt noted (1947: 27) that \u201cArab merchants already in the 11th century brought them [celadons] for the first time to Europe under the Arab designation \u2018martabani\u2019.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>North of the Caucasus celadons began to appear in large quantities following the Mongol conquest at the end of the 13th century (Poluboiarinova 2003: 163; Mazurov and Koval\u2019 2004: 302), and the peak of their dissemination comes in the 14th to the beginning of the 15th centuries.<\/p>\n<p>Yet an awareness of the fact that among the finds of Golden Horde and Early Rus cities of the late Middle Ages are celadons, and more generally Chinese imports, only gradually entered Russian scholarship. The first to discover Chinese ceramic imports in the ruins of Golden Horde cities in the 1840s was Aleksandr Vlas\u2019evich Tereshchenko (1806\u20131865), a functionary of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a member of the Archaeological Commission, and an extraordinarily accomplished amateur archaeologist. Beginning in the second half of the 18th century, scholars and administrators (e.g., Vasilii Tatishchev, Petr Rychkov, Samuel Gmelin, Ivan Lepekhin, and Johann Fal\u2019k) had noted in the region along the Volga some grandiose ruins (Glukhov 2014: 92\u201393), which, as later became known, were the remains of Golden Horde cities. From 1843 to 1851, Tereshchenko, a graduate of Khar\u2019kov University who held the rank of \u201cActual State Counselor,\u201d studied one of these locations, the former capital of the Golden Horde (Saray Berke), located on the lower Volga. As Svetlana Borisovna Adaksina has noted (1993: 47), \u201cthese were the first large-scale excavations in Russia of a medieval city.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>In one of the volumes of the <em>Notes of the St. Petersburg Archaeological and Numismatic Society<\/em> describing his excavations, Tereshchenko wrote (1850: 382, 385\u201386) that in 1846 he had found \u201c\u2026 broken faience and porcelain dishes with depictions on them of flowers and birds; \u2026 found under beams were faience and porcelain dishes, which, however, were already broken.\u201d Apparently the following excerpt of his work pertains to celadon: \u201cA faience dish of pale green color. It is noteworthy, as apart from its inherent distinction is the fact that until it was found, no complete objects of faience had been found which the Tatars must have obtained from China, with which they interacted. It is decorated with inscribed stripes and patterns \u2026\u201d (ibid.: 408). The celadon finds from Tereshchenko\u2019s excavations were published in 2005 (<em>Zolotaia Orda<\/em> 2005: 233\u201334, Hermitage Inventory Nos. Sar-144, Sar-145 and Sar-156).<\/p>\n<p>One should note that Tereshchenko\u2019s finds of Chinese porcelain and celadon in a Golden Horde settlement did not lead to general recognition of the fact that fine Chinese ceramics were imported into the cities of the Golden Horde. Thus, in the <em>Reports of the Society of Archaeology, History and Ethnography at the Imperial University of Kazan\u2019<\/em> in 1878, appended to an article with the expressive title \u201cOn a remarkable Chinese coin of the end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century, obtained in the village of Bolgary in August 1877,\u201d was the following sentence from the pen of a professor of the capital\u2019s university: \u201cWe have no information whatsoever regarding relations of ancient China with the lands that are Russia today\u201d (Vasil\u2019ev 1878: 123).<\/p>\n<p>The situation began to change at the end of the 19th century. A deposit of Eastern dishes which included a whole series of celadons was discovered in the Moscow Kremlin under the floor of the Cathedral of the Annunciation (Fekhner 1956: 94). In a 1901 article about excavations at Akkerman (at the mouth of the Dniester River in Ukraine), Ernst Romanovich fon Shtern (1901: 40) singled out \u201c\u2026 two pieces of a dish of ancient Chinese greenish turquoise (\u2018meer-grun\u2019) \u2018celadon-porcelain\u2019\u2026 which, as is known, rarely made its way to Europe and therefore was highly valued.\u201d In 1911, describing the porcelain gallery of the Imperial Hermitage, Sergei Nikolaevich Troinitskii provided a precise description of a Chinese celadon, enumerated locations outside of China where such ceramics were found, and mentioned as well the Moscow deposit in the Annunciation Cathedral. In the section devoted to ceramics in the report about excavations by S. N. Pokrovskii at the Bolgar settlement site carried out just before the start of the First World War in July 1914, Mikhail Georgievich Khudiakov wrote (1916: 213): \u201cA good many pieces of porcelain were found. They are covered in a greenish glaze, and on several shards can be seen a design in green, a delicate vegetal ornament; on one of the fragments are traces of some kind of raised depiction in red \u2026 .\u201d In the conclusion to another work dedicated specifically to Chinese ceramics from the excavations at Bolgary, a major urban site prior to the coming of the Mongols and under their rule, located midway up the Volga River, Khudiakov indicated more precisely (1919: 119): \u201cRelations of Bolgary with China, known from finds at Bolgary of Chinese coins and mirrors, have received new confirmation.\u201d In his work published in 1923 about new excavations at Saray, the capital of the Golden Horde, Frants Vladimirovich Ballod (1923: 42) already wrote that celadon ceramics were found \u201cin huge quantities.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>One notes as well that the first finds by Aleksandr Tereshchenko are related to the beginning of scholarly discussion about the importing of Korean celadons into the Volga cities of the Golden Horde. In 1969 N.M. Bulatov noted that one of the celadons found by Tereshchenko has analogies among Korean celadons of the Goryeo period (Bulatov 1969: 56\u201357, citing Kiuner and Dubrovina 1953). Mark Grigor\u2019evich Kramarovskii (2005: 96, 98) mentions the presence of Korean celadons in Golden Horde cities as a proven fact. In 2011, a short report of a conference presentation even ventured (albeit cautiously and without supporting evidence) a Korean origin for \u201ca not insignificant part\u201d of the celadons found in the medieval monuments of the Caucasus and Eastern Europe (Gadzhiev and Lim 2011). In 2013, Airat Maratovich Gubaidullin (2013: 193, fig. 5.7) published a celadon dish from the Golden Horde city of Bolgary on which is inscribed a Korean or Chinese character. He thus suggested a Korean provenance for the piece, an attribution that since has been disputed by Vladimir Iur\u2019evich Koval\u2019 (2017: 758).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_696\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-696\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-696\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-300x174.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"174\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-300x174.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-768x445.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-1024x594.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-695x403.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28-259x150.jpg 259w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig28.jpg 1137w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-696\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 28. Pseudo-celadon cup discards from unsuccessful firing in the kilns at the Selitrennoe hillfort. (After: Egorov and Pigarev 2017, 722, figs. 5.1, 2)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In the period of the Golden Horde, celadons produced in various Far Eastern ceramic centers are found in the cities of the Golden Horde located in the Black Sea region along the lower Dnieper, in Transcaucasia and the Northern Caucasus, in Moldova, and along the Volga. In the Golden Horde cities, celadons are found on the premises of the \u201crich residences, palaces and public buildings\u201d (Tikhomilova 2002: 247). The celadons came into the Golden Horde along the Silk Road (Fedorov-Davydov 2001: 217) or by sea (Raby 1986). Attesting to the popularity of celadons in the Golden Horde is the appearance in Golden Horde cities of the production of pseudo-celadons\u2014kashin ceramic dishes whose shape and glaze color imitate celadons (Bulatov 1968: 108\u20139; Fedorov-Davydov 1994: 134; Egorov and Pigarev 2017) [<strong>Fig. 28<\/strong>]. The celadons that came into Rus\u2019 must have traveled via the cities of the Golden Horde.<\/p>\n<p>Celadons have been found in ten cities of Ancient Rus, located on the territory of Russia and Ukraine: Moscow, Tver\u2019, Kolomna, Riazan\u2019, Velikii Novgorod, Kiev, Chernigov, Nizhnii Novgorod, Vladimir in Volynia, and Lutsk (Koval\u2019 2010: 134\u201336; 2017: 758\u201360). There are dozens of shards, pieces estimated to have come from some 40 to 50 dishes. Among them, the dish of the episcopal court most closely resembles a fragment of the bottom of a dish found in Tver\u2019 [<strong>Fig. 29<\/strong>] (Koval\u2019 2010: 136). The discovery of celadon in Novgorod was first reported in a short communication by Ernest Kondratovich Kverfel\u2019dt (1938: 188). Two small fragments of celadons from Novgorod, found in the strata of the mid-14th and second quarter of the 15th centuries in the Nerev and Trinity excavations, have since been published [<strong>Fig. 19<\/strong> above] (Koval\u2019 1997a: 159, fig. 2.9; Rodionova and Frenkel\u2019 2012: 24, ill. 9). The topography of the find of the dish from the episcopal court supports the idea that the celadon belonged to someone from the entourage of the Novgorod archbishop. The fire of 1340 occurred at the time of the archbishopric of Vasilii Kalika (1331\u20131350). Apparently the last owner of the dish was one of his staff.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_697\" style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-697\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-697\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-250x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"250\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-250x300.jpg 250w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-768x923.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-852x1024.jpg 852w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-695x835.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29-125x150.jpg 125w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig29.jpg 1444w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-697\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 29. A fragment from a Longquan celadon dish with underglaze molded d\u00e9cor excavated in Tver\u2019. (After: Koval\u2019 2010: col. pl. 55:3)<\/p><\/div>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">How the Celadon Reached Novgorod<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Found in a socially prestigious region of Novgorod, this dish most probably had traveled from a Golden Horde city via another old Russian city, Moscow being the most likely candidate. The association of celadon finds with church circles corresponds well with the circumstances of the celadon finds in Moscow (Koval\u2019 1997b) and in other old Russian towns (Fekhner 1956: 94; Beliaev 2010: 25, n. 13; Mazurov and Koval\u2019 2004: 302). To hypothesize that there might have been a connection of the celadon in question with the Moscow Grand Prince, Ivan I Kalita (1288-1340), fits with what we know about the role the Moscow princes began to play as representatives of the political power of the khans in Russian lands and as chief collectors for the tribute which was paid to the Golden Horde. Furthermore, the consolidation of princely power in Moscow was substantially aided by the princes\u2019 close relationship with the Orthodox hierarchs.<\/p>\n<p>Novgorod had managed to escape direct interference by the minions of the Golden Horde in city administration as well as direct military contact with the Horde. The khans dealt but indirectly with the city via their vassals, the early Russian princes to whom they had delegated their military, fiscal, and in part diplomatic functions. Novgorodian merchants could act as middlemen in trade with the Volga region. While a substantial amount of Golden Horde ceramics have been found in Novgorod, dating to the middle and third quarter of the 14th century (Koval\u2019 1997a: 165; 1998: 169), few of these vessels were the costly celadons imported from across Asia which would have merited special attention. And in fact the date of the deposit of the Longquan dish in the cultural stratum of the episcopal court in 1340 is somewhat earlier than the mass appearance in Novgorod of Golden Horde imported ceramics. The dish itself has to have been produced sometime prior to that year, and one thus has to wonder whether in fact it was an object of trade.<\/p>\n<p>Among the other possible explanations for its acquisition might be river piracy, where Novgorodian river raiders (known as <em>ushkuiniki<\/em>) acquired a reputation for forays far to the south, in some cases in the vicinity of Golden Horde cities. But the peak of the activity of the <em>ushkuiniki<\/em> came in periods of political instability and military defeats of the Horde, that is in the last third of the 14th to the 15th centuries. By the last quarter of the 14th century, the quantity of ceramic imports from the Golden Horde in fact gradually diminishes, and none of the ceramic fragments include celadons. So one might think the <em>ushkuiniki<\/em> would not have valued as trophies such objects as large and heavy celadon vessels. Therefore, if our celadon from the episcopal court was neither a trade good nor a trophy, what other explanation might there be for how it arrived in Novgorod?<\/p>\n<p>Might it have been a gift, in a culture where gifting was an important practice that cemented political and personal alliances? Here is one possible scenario, based on what we know from the chronicles. In 1335, Novgorod was visited for the second time by the Moscow Grand Prince Ivan Kalita. In the same year the Novgorod leadership, including the archbishop, visited Moscow on the invitation of Kalita. In the words of the Novgorod chronicle, \u201cIn the same year Bishop Vasilii traveled to Grand Prince Ivan in Moscow <em>to be honored<\/em>\u201d (PSRL, 43: 111; emphasis added). Historians have noted that in Moscow the representatives of the Novgorod elite\u2014the archbishop, mayor, leader of the thousand, and the elite nobles\u2014were \u201ctreated with affection\u201d by the Grand Prince (Solov\u2019ev 1988: 229). It is possible that the celadon came into the hands of someone in the suite of Vasilii Kalika at precisely this moment, and that this person took it back to Novgorod, only to lose it to the fire five years later.<\/p>\n<p>The interest of such a dish may well have derived from its decorative imagery rather than its exotic rarity. In the Old World, a composition such as that of the two fish is polysemic. From early times this composition was one of the signs of the Zodiac. In the Christian world, the depiction of two fish carries a different symbolic meaning, as is evident in the following New Testament quotation: \u201cAnd he commanded the multitude to sit down on the grass, and took the five loaves, and <em>the two fishes<\/em>, and looking up to heaven \u2026\u201d [Matthew 14:19, King James version, emphasis added]. In medieval Christian material culture, paired depictions of fish are known, among other places on ceramics. Nadezhda Iur\u2019evna Vishnevskaia has shown convincingly (2009: 338) that \u201cthe motif of two fish on a dish is connected with the Gospel theme of the eucharistic feast.\u201d<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_698\" style=\"width: 222px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-698\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-698\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-212x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"212\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-695x983.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Fig30-106x150.jpg 106w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 212px) 100vw, 212px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-698\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 30. A type of metal mirror from a nomadic grave, Golden Horde period. (After: Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 79, ris.13, \u041d1)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>We have noted above the meaning of such a composition in China. But in the Golden Horde, too, the given composition was very popular. One type of Golden Horde copper coin has just such a depiction (Lebedev and Klokov 2010: 38, Nos. 125\u201327; 49, fig. 2\/125\u201327). In the Golden Horde cities of New Sarai, Bolgary, and Biliar and in graves were found round metal mirrors with such a depiction of fish [<strong>Fig. 30<\/strong>] (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 79, fig. 13; Valeev and Rudenko 2005: 178, fig. 6). Scholars have noted that paired depictions of fish on mirrors derive \u201cfrom Chinese motifs\u201d (Fedorov-Davydov 1994: 203). The precise semantic meaning of this symbol in the Golden Horde milieu is difficult to determine, but possibly might have been similar to the Chinese understanding. Mirrors with paired depictions of fish are known among the Jurchen. Given what we know about the dissemination of mirrors from the Far East in various periods, this suggests one possible mode of transmission of the motif to the Volga region.<\/p>\n<p>We propose then that the presence of the dish with Chinese symbolism in the residence of the Novgorod archbishop can be explained by the Christian reinterpretation of a traditional Chinese symbol. The interactions between the Mongols and their Orthodox subjects in Rus occurred in various ways. Prince Ivan I Kalita made several trips to the Horde in order to secure his position and a guarantee that his heirs would continue to enjoy the khan\u2019s favor. The head of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Peter, who would end his days resident in Moscow, also visited Sarai, where the khan confirmed privileges granted to the Church. Some Russians, willingly or unwillingly, resided in the cities of the Golden Horde, and an Orthodox bishopric had been established there. There is good reason to think that the Mongols and the Russians would have developed some appreciation (if not acceptance) of each other\u2019s cultural values. If \u201cread\u201d according to a Christian cultural code, a celadon that may have been understood very differently by the Mongols thus could have been perceived as having particular value for the Christian elite of the Russian principalities. So it is reasonable to hypothesize how it could have made its way to Moscow, and from there on to Novgorod, where its final owner was a resident of the episcopal court.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: right\"><em>&#8211; translated by Daniel C. Waugh<\/em><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Authors<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Marina Anatol\u2019evna Rodionova<\/strong> is an archaeologist and senior research scholar in the Center of Archaeological Research Organization and Implementation of Novgorod State Museum. Her academic interests encompass the history and the archaeology of medieval Novgorod. For her research on the Novgorod Kremlin, see Rodionova 2011, 2012 and 2017. E-mail: &lt;mariro58@mail.ru&gt;.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Iakov Viktorovich Frenkel\u2019<\/strong> is an archaeologist and research scholar in the Department of Architectural Archaeology of the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. His academic interests include the archaeometry of glass, ceramics, and metal, as well as early medieval glass beads and early medieval chronology. For his previous publications relating to the current article, see Frenkel\u2019 and Khavrin 2012; Frenkel\u2019 et al., 2017; and in the latter volume \u201cKhimicheskii sostav srednevekovykh stekol Kremlevskogo raskopa-I\u201d [The Chemical Composition of the medieval glass of the Kremlin Excavation-I], in: Rodionova 2017: 222\u201325. E-mail: &lt;reserv-jashafrenkel@mail.ru&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Acknowledgments<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>We thank the staff of the State Hermitage: T. B. Arapov and K. F. Samosiuk for assistance in work in the collections, S. V. Khavrin for facilitating the archaeometric analysis, V. V. Demiasheva, N. V. Tsareva, and L. G. Kheifits for assistance in preparation of the photo illustrations, N. A. Sutiagin for the translation of Chinese texts. And we are especially grateful to the staff of the library of the Eastern Section. We thank P. G. Gaidukov (Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences) for the establishment and dating of the numismatic and sphragistics material and O. A. Tarabardin (TsOOAI NGOMZ, Velikii Novgorod) for carrying out the dendrochronological analysis of the planks. We thank Ingmar Jansson (Sweden) for assistance in work in the Royal Library in Stockholm. And our heartfelt thanks to V. Iu. 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Sbornik nauchnykh trudov<\/em>. Barnaul; Omsk, 2015: 188\u201392.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Zilivinskaia 2008<\/strong><br \/>\nEmma Davidovna Zilivinskaia. \u201cRaskopki usad\u2019by na Krasnom burge Selitrennogo gorodishcha\u201d [Excavations of the residence on the Red Hill of the Selitrennoe hillfort]. <em>Stepi Evropy v epokhu srednevekov\u2019ia. Zolotoordynskoe vremia<\/em>. Vol. 6. Donetsk, 2008: 17\u201393.<\/p>\n<p><em><strong>Zolotaia orda 2005<\/strong><br \/>\nZolotaia orda. Istoriia i kul\u2019tura\u00a0<\/em>[The Golden Horde. History and culture]. Sankt-Peterburg, 2005.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 53\u201377.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Marina Anatol&#8217;evna Rodionova Novgorod State Museum &nbsp; Iakov Viktorovich Frenkel&#8217; State Hermitage Museum &nbsp; Histories of the \u201cSilk Roads\u201d generally have devoted too little attention to evidence about Eurasian exchange found in the northern reaches of Eastern Europe. Much has been written about the significant flow of Middle Eastern and Central Asian silver into that [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-667","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/667","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=667"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/667\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=667"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":660,"date":"2019-03-29T03:30:45","date_gmt":"2019-03-29T03:30:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=660"},"modified":"2019-03-29T04:17:37","modified_gmt":"2019-03-29T04:17:37","slug":"v16_2018_compareti","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_compareti\/","title":{"rendered":"Heroes Fighting Snake Demons: Problems of Identification in Panjikent Paintings"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Matteo Compareti<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">School of History and Civilization<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"color: #800000\">Shaanxi Normal University<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Since its discovery in the 1950s, the so-called \u201cBlue Hall\u201d at Panjikent has been considered a masterpiece of Sogdian art. Its paintings include a continuous program developing along the four walls, dedicated mainly to the great eastern Iranian hero Rustam, who is immediately recognizable by his leopard skin garments (Marshak 2002; Grenet 2015).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_662\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-662\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-662\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified-300x172.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"172\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified-300x172.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified-768x441.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified-695x399.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified-261x150.jpg 261w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-modified.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-662\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. Schematic reproduction of the Rustam painted program in the Blue Hall at Panjikent, sector VI\/room 41 (ca. 740).<br \/>After: Marshak 2002, fig. 14, 16-17.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Rustam is always represented atop his reddish horse Rakhsh while fighting demons or moving into mysterious lands populated by strange creatures, as described in the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> by Firdousi. The painted program of Rustam is fairly well preserved on three walls, and seven scenes of the sequence can still be observed clearly [<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong>]. Cleaning by the Hermitage restorers of fragmentary parts of the Blue Hall, which are still unpublished, revealed at least two more scenes, including one in which the hero is received at court by the king and another that depicts a fight scene near a giant yellow bird, possibly a <em>simurgh<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>On an archaeological basis, the Rustam painted program should be dated to around 740 C.E. Although the paintings contain Sogdian inscriptions of epigraphical importance, their content does not refer to the scenes represented there. The first, a formulaic inscription, is addressed to the king, while the second is a writing exercise, most likely left by a student from a nearby school in an attempt to vandalize the painted room during a visit (Lurje 2014).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_663\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-663\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-663\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-300x155.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"155\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-300x155.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-768x396.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-1024x527.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-695x358.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-1-291x150.jpg 291w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-663\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 2. Line drawing of Rustam fighting a female snake-demon at Panjikent. Sketch by Li Sifei.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>One scene is a representation of Rustam fighting with a snake demon that does not appear in the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> [<strong>Fig. 2<\/strong>].\u00a0There is a missing frame in the sequence, since the left portion depicts Rustam about to be swallowed by the monster while the right portion shows him moving forward, with the human snake lying on the ground already dead. Pavel Lurje has suggested that the missing frame should have depicted the killing of the monster from inside of its belly\u2014the weapon Rustam holds in his right hand behind his back in the first part of the sequence would have been used to cut open the monster\u2019s belly (Lurje 2014).<\/p>\n<p>The story of a hero swallowed by a monster, usually a giant sea creature or dragon, represents a very well-known <em>topos<\/em> in world mythology: it can be found in ancient Greece, the Hebrew Bible, and also in the Christian world (Angelini 2010; Kuehn 2014; Miller 2018).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_664\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-664\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-664\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-300x298.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"298\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-300x298.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-768x764.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-1024x1018.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-695x691.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-1-151x150.jpg 151w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-664\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 3. Sasanian seal kept in the British Museum (acc. no. 119387). After: Harper 2006, fig. 96. Sketch by Matteo Compareti.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Representations of a hero fighting with a dragon can be found sometimes in pre-Islamic Persian art (Magistro 2000). Sasanian seals embellished with the scene of a haloed mounted knight fighting with a multi-headed giant snake, which could resemble the Hydra of Herakles\u2019 trials, appear sometimes in museums and private collections [<strong>Fig. 3<\/strong>]. In at least one example, the man fighting the multi-headed snake is not on a horse (Ritter 2010: pl. X, A2019). During some recent excavations at Panjikent, the Russo-Tajik team also found a seal with the same scene of an armoured horse rider adorned with a helmet killing a snake monster. The scene is accompanied by the Sogdian inscription <em>qaghan<\/em> (Kurbanov et al. 2017: 11). A late 8th to early 9th century burnt wooden frieze, found at Shahristan (Ustrushana or eastern Sogdiana) in the shape of a semi-circular tympanum and originally installed above the entrance of an important room (possibly the throne hall), also presents seventeen decorative roundels containing fighting scenes. At least two of these scenes include a mounted warrior fighting a snake dragon (Bubnova 2016: 176).<sup>1<\/sup> Though these kinds of images present some similarities with the scene in the Blue Hall at Panjikent, they are not exactly the same. In fact, the Sasanian and Sogdian monsters do not include any human body parts. Moreover, the entire scene looks more like an icon of Saint George, with clear allusions to the fight of good against evil, and figured, as usual, in the shape of a Biblical tempter (Rempel\u2019 1987: 136; Kuehn 2014).<\/p>\n<p>As was mentioned some time ago by Boris Marshak (2002: 40), the monster in the Sogdian painting is a female one. This fact is evident in her long hair and pointed breasts. Legends and stories including women connected with monstrous snakes call to mind the three Gorgons of Greek mythology and especially Medusa, the only one of the triad who was mortal. Reflections of the story of Medusa can also be found in Islamic Persia and Central Asia (Compareti 2018). A large number of representations of monstrous snakes or dragons can be found in Islamic book illustrations. Among the most famous stories involving dragon-slaying heroes preserved in Firdousi\u2019s <em>Shahnameh<\/em>, one could also mention the stories of Zahak; Feridun transformed into a dragon to test his sons\u2019 courage; Ardashir pouring molten metal into the mouth of a giant worm; and the dragons killed by Gushtasp, Bahram Gur, and others. Curiously enough, under further examination, the third trial of Isfandyar, as described in the <em>Shahnameh<\/em>, represents a possible parallel with the scene depicted at Panjikent. In that story, Isfandyar is swallowed by a dragon but is able to defeat the monster by cutting its belly open from inside. L.I. Rempel\u2019 (1986: 136) has already noted this curious similarity between the two Iranian dragon slayers, and G. Azarpay (1981: 96-97) considered that dragon fighter as not connected to any specific hero. In the painting of the Blue Hall at Panjikent, however, the hero wears panther skin garments typical of Rustam\u2014not of Isfandyar, his fiercest enemy.<\/p>\n<p>These stories were fairly popular in Islamic book illustrations. Illustrated copies of the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> even include embellished images of Rustam and Rakhsh fighting a dragon. One of the oldest illustrations of this specific episode can be found in a manuscript preserved in the State Public Library of St. Peterburg (ex Dorn, 329, cf. Adamova and Gjuzal\u2019jan 1985: pl. 9). Pre-Islamic representations of snake monsters can also be found in Sogdian paintings. For example, a haloed person wearing a crown with snakes on his shoulders, possibly identified with Zahak, appears in one 6th-century Sogdian painting located on the northwestern corner of the portico of the principal hall of Temple I at Panjikent (Belenitskii and Marshak 1981: 68-69; Mode 1987). These dragons, however, do not evince any significant anthropomorphism or feminine aspects.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_665\" style=\"width: 186px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-665\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-665\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-176x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"176\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-176x300.jpg 176w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-768x1307.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-602x1024.jpg 602w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-695x1182.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1-88x150.jpg 88w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1.jpg 1968w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 176px) 100vw, 176px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-665\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 4. Turkish manuscript kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York ca. 1582 (suppl. turque 242, fol. 90v). After: Schmitz 1997, 83, fig. 120. Sketch by Matteo Compareti.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>There are at least two Turkish book illustrations that reproduce a hybrid human-headed snake who looks into a mirror held by a man standing in front of him. One of them [<strong>Fig. 4<\/strong>] is dated ca. 1582 (suppl. turque 242, fol. 90v) and is at present kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York (Carboni 1988a: 108-10, pl. 8; Schmitz 1997: 83, fig. 120). The second illustration [<strong>Fig. 5<\/strong>] (M.788, fol. 89v) is dated to the same period and is kept in the Biblioth\u00e8que National de France in Paris (Stchoukine 1966: pl. 46). In both miniatures, Medusa is evoked by a giant snake, whose head, adorned with long hair, could be that of a woman. In the upper part of both illustrations there is also a label identifying them as \u201cthe laughing snake and the mirror\u201d (<em>Shekl-i mar-i qahqaha va ayne<\/em>). It is worth observing that, at least in the Turkish miniature kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library, the human head of the giant snake is smiling. Despite the lack of textual explications, the \u201claughing snake\u201d could be associated with Zahak, another (male) serpentine heckler or mocker in Iranian legends who was rooted in more ancient Indo-Iranian myths (Schwartz 2012). The female creature in the book illustrations preserves all her negative traits. In fact, the walled city in the background suggests that her very presence constitutes a threaten to humans. For this reason, one man emerges from the group of people, bringing with him a mirror to prevent her assault. The expectation is that the human-headed snake will die or run away after looking into the mirror, since recognition of her own image will cause her to laugh herself to death. In addition, the idea of killing another being with its own reflected gaze presents some connections with serpentine monsters such as Medusa. It also emerges later, however, in Islamic book illustrations that may possibly be rooted in more ancient Indo-Iranian myths (Compareti 2018).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_666\" style=\"width: 177px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-666\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-666\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-167x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"167\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-167x300.jpg 167w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-768x1379.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-570x1024.jpg 570w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-695x1248.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1-84x150.jpg 84w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-1.jpg 1788w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 167px) 100vw, 167px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-666\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 5. Turkish manuscript kept in the Biblioth\u00e8que National de France, Paris ca. 1582 (M.788, fol. 89v). After: Stchoukine 1966, pl. 46. Sketch by Matteo Compareti.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Despite the lack of human arms in the Islamic book illustrations noted above, the images of snake women in Ottoman miniatures represent the only parallel with those Sogdian paintings in the Blue Hall that might demonstrate the presence of female snake-demons in the Iranian milieu at the dawn of the Arab invasion. It is not entirely clear if this section of the Sogdian paintings at Panjikent is connected to the story of Medusa; after all, Rustam does not hold a mirror in his hands. However, at least from an iconographical point of view, the Sogdian monsters and the human snake from the rare Islamic book illustrations could be considered female and thus very similar.<\/p>\n<p>Creatures with deadly gazes are well known in Islamic literature and are not necessarily connected with snakes. Birds are also depicted with similar peculiarities, and may be considered to be another reflection of Medusa\u2019s offspring. One page of the early fifteenth-century \u201cBook of Wonders\u201d (<em>Kit\u0101b al-bulh\u0101n<\/em>) (Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS. Bodl. Or. 133), also includes a \u201cDiscussion on the Mountain of Fire and Salamander-Birds\u201d (<em>Al qawl \u2018ala jabal al-nar wa tayr samandar<\/em>) (Carboni 1988b: fol. 42v). Though the birds mentioned in the text do not evince fantastic peculiarities, it is clear that they can survive on the mountain of fire exactly like the Phoenix (<em>\u2018Anqa<\/em>). For this reason, they might have been confused with the salamander (<em>samandar<\/em>), an animal commonly associated with the igneous element in the ancient world. Some Turco-Iranian legends include the story of a hero who is transported by the <em>Simurgh<\/em> to the land of the \u201cmountains of fire.\u201d In order to pass through the fire without burning, the hero had to cover his body with the fat of the <em>samandar<\/em>, which is described as a winged horse (Melikoff 1962, 39). G. Scarcia collected some eastern Iranian legends about odd creatures that killed people and animals just by looking at them. These creatures could even kill themselves just by looking at their image in a mirror and laughing themselves to death (Scarcia 2003: 20).<\/p>\n<p>One Islamic legend tells the story of the Prophet Muhammad, who saw a pillow belonging to his wife decorated with winged horses. The sight of this decoration caused Muhammad to break into hysterical laughter until he nearly died (Noja 1983). This seems to be a re-reading of the myth of Medusa, who gave birth to Pegasus from her beheaded neck. Even if it is not expressly stated as such in any written source, it is highly probable that the Greek Medusa not only petrified people, but also provoked in them such a strong laughter, prompted by sight of her hideous face, so as to cause their death (Vernant 1985 [2014]: 40-41). Hence the Islamic Pegasus is both renamed as <em>samandar<\/em>\u2014i.e., Phoenix\u2014and superimposes its own image onto the functions of the <em>Simurgh<\/em> from Turco-Iranian legends.<\/p>\n<p>In the twelfth-century mystical treatise \u201cThe Red Intellect\u201d (<em>\u2018Aql-i sorkh<\/em>) by Shih\u0101b al-Din Sohravardi, there is an interesting description of the famous battle between Rustam, the eastern Iranian heroic defender of tradition, and Isfandyar, the champion of Zoroastrianism. According to this story, Rustam\u2019s father, Zal, knew that anyone who looked at the reflection of the <em>Simurgh<\/em> in a mirror would be dazed. For this reason, he had the armour and helmet of his son thoroughly polished. Zal then made sure that the <em>Simurgh<\/em> cast his reflection upon Rustam\u2019s armour. As expected, during the battle, the reflection of the <em>Simurgh<\/em> on Rustam\u2019s armour dazed Isfandyar, who, thinking he was wounded in the eyes, subsequently died (Yarshater 1998: 588).<\/p>\n<p>This episode does not appear either in Islamic book illustrations nor in the earlier representation of Rustam\u2019s trials from the mid-eighth century Sogdian painted program in Panjikent. However, if the <em>Simurgh<\/em> is identified with the Phoenix, and the Phoenix can be confused with the salamander and Pegasus in the Islamic world, then it seems quite obvious that all these legends deal with Medusa\u2019s deadly gaze\u2014and that this deadly gaze was eventually transmitted to her equine son. In the Turkish illustrations examined above, the only part of the human body that is preserved is the long-haired head, with the rest of the body subsumed into serpentine form. Might it be possible, however, to consider the Islamic renderings of the Gorgon as connected to the story of Rustam at Panjikent?<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that the story of Rustam and Medusa share interesting points of overlap, many of which survive in both Islamic texts and visual arts, they also exhibit certain differences with the Blue Hall scene at Panjikent. One of the first objections would be grounded in the story reported in \u201cThe Red Intellect.\u201d Zal, a sorcerer, along with his son Rustam, are both described as allies of the <em>Simurgh<\/em>, thus evincing some common traits with Medusa and Pegasus (who is also conflated with the Phoenix and salamander). Moreover, the story of Medusa does not refer to her as a devouring monster, and her connection to snakes could be considered just a pretext to stress her monstrous nature.<\/p>\n<p>As a result, Pavel Lurje (2014) has drawn upon Tajik folklore to propose a different reading of the story of Rustam fighting a female snake demon, as depicted in the Panjikent paintings. He shows that there is in fact at least one Tajik fable about a snake demon who was the mother of monstrous offspring. In this fable, all of the offspring would eventually devour people. In other words, the reason why the Sogdian paintings seem to be independent from the Persian text is likely because they were following eastern Iranian traditions of which Firdousi was either unaware or ignored. Sogdian texts from China include descriptions of epic heroes and other figures from the legend of Rustam. The longer episode, which survives in a fragment from the British Library, does not appear in the story included in the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> (Sims-Williams 1976; Sims-Williams 2004).<sup>2<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Sogdian paintings from Panjikent also include the very first representation of Rustam, but not yet in his \u201ccanonical\u201d form, which would be adopted some centuries later by Firdousi. Though Rustam\u2019s name\u2014literally \u201cstrong as a river\u201d\u2014should be considered western Iranian in origin (Sims-Williams 2004; Compareti 2016a: 26), Rustam himself was an eastern Iranian hero from Zabulistan whose stories and legends were well known in Central Asia before the Islamic era. Variations of Rustam\u2019s story, which were incorporated into the <em>Shahnameh<\/em>, are to be expected among the Sogdians, whose literature and figurative arts probably preserved aspects of local traditions now found only in Tajik fables.<\/p>\n<p>From an iconographical point of view, the snake demon at Panjikent does not present any clear parallel with illustrations of the trials of Rustam or Isfandyar, as are sometimes included in <em>Shahnameh<\/em> manuscripts. In fact, when those heroes are represented as fighting with snake dragons in Islamic book illustrations, the iconography of the monster is always the Chinese <em>long<\/em> \u9f8d, a serpent-like creature imprecisely rendered as \u201cdragon\u201d in Western literature. As is well known, Chinese iconographical traditions established during the Song period (960-1279) were introduced into Persia at the time of the Mongol conquest under the Ilkhanids (1256-1353). These Song artistic traditions were used to represent not only fantastic creatures of the Iranian mythological canon, but also those of natural elements such as mountains, trees, and clouds (Vogelsang 2013). Chinese stylistic features were also incorporated into depictions of other creatures. In the case of the <em>Simurgh<\/em>, which is usually (and imprecisely) rendered as \u201cphoenix\u201d (Compareti, 2016a), the external iconography was modeled on the Chinese <em>fenghuang<\/em> \u9cf3\u51f0.<\/p>\n<p>However, a small group of Persian miniatures, mainly dated to the early fourteenth century, still presents an image of the <em>Simurgh<\/em> that appears to be based not on Chinese prototypes, but rather on an image of an owl included in one of the Panjikent paintings (Compareti 2016b: fig. 21). We thus cannot rule out the possibility that the paintings of the Blue Hall at Panjikent might still constitute a kind of \u201cgenuine Iranian prototype\u201d not only for the <em>Simurgh<\/em>, but also for the image of the \u201cIranian dragon\u201d as well. Such a hypothesis can not be substantiated, for the simple reason that there are no Islamic book illustrations for the dragon as there are for the <em>Simurgh<\/em>. From the Mongol period onward, nearly all dragons that have been represented in book illustrations are adaptations of the Chinese <em>long<\/em>, with the exception of the two Turkish miniatures noted above.<\/p>\n<p>In any case, such considerations do not completely explain the female nature of the monster at Panjikent. It is possible that some elements were derived from stories of a monster connected with Medusa, which were very popular in eastern Iranian lands. Tajik fables mentioned by Lurje also resonate with similar well-known stories from ancient Greece, in which a monster associated with snakes bore responsibility for the death of newborn children. As is well known, the figure of Medusa was connected with Baubo (a personification of female sex), who appears in the myth of Demeter, as well as other creatures such as the ogress Lamia (Mesopotamian <em>Lamashtu<\/em>) and the chthonian goddess Hecate, who was known as a kidnapper of children (Childs 2003: 65; Ogden 2013: 95). All of these creatures also seem to be connected with the snake-women depicted in the Turkish illustrations mentioned above. In fact, it is highly probable that the monster was intended to represent a menace to the inhabitants of the walled city in the background. This menace was embodied in one of two ways: either by looking at them, or, possibly, devouring them\u2014as snakes usually do.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the image of the female snake dragon, there seems to be at Panjikent some confusion regarding the main character of the story. Is it Rustam or Isfandyar? As noted above, in the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> it is Isfandyar who is swallowed by the dragon. In the Panjikent paintings, however, the dragon-fighting hero wears the leopard skin garments typical of Rustam. As is well known, one feature of the Isfandyar trials is the killing of the <em>Simurgh<\/em>. Curiously enough, at a certain point in the narration of the <em>Shahnameh<\/em>, Rustam also shoots the <em>Simurgh<\/em> with an arrow after the magic bird exhibits an aggressive posture. Even though this episode might be considered \u201cmarginal\u201d (During 1988-89: 34), it is still included in the story of Rustam and represents a further convergence of the characteristics of Rustam with those of Isfandyar. Just like the Shahnameh narrative, the trials of Rustam as depicted in the Panjikent murals include several incongruous details. The story of Isfandyar, too, exhibits some inconsistencies. The death of the <em>Simurgh<\/em>, which will later prompt Rustam to prepare a magic arrow to be shot in the eyes of Isfandyar, is narrated, illogically, in a previous part of the <em>Shahnameh<\/em>. For this reason, popular traditions of this story seem to have invented a couple of <em>Simurghs<\/em>: one female and one male. The reason why the male <em>Simurgh<\/em> helped Rustam in his duel can be found in this version of the story, since the female <em>Simurgh<\/em> just wanted to avenge the death of her \u201chusband\u201d (Yarshater 1998: 588).<\/p>\n<p>In a section of the Rustam program that has been recently restored in the State Hermitage, one can recognize a duel between the hero, adorned in leopard skin, and an opponent whose shoulders exhibit vivid flames (Compareti 2016b: fig. 9). This is a common way to represent an important character in Sogdian art. In this scene, the leopard skin-adorned hero uses a bow that in other parts of the painted program is portrayed as still in its case. As a result, it seems clear that this scene represents a depiction of the duel between Rustam and Isfandyar. In front of the hero identified with Rustam, there is a conventional flying composite creature associated with a commentary on his fortune (<em>farn<\/em> in Sogdian), while behind him there is an owl that is evocative of the small group of Islamic book illustrations that reproduce the <em>Simurgh<\/em>. At this point, every piece of the composition seems to find its proper place: the duel among two heroes who greatly resemble each other and are often sometimes mistaken for one another; a composite flying creature swooping in front of that hero who is destined to win; the body of the defeated hero trampled under horses with a broken round shield; and the <em>Simurgh<\/em> appearing behind the victorious warrior (<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong> above, bottom left).<\/p>\n<p>Those Sogdian paintings raise many questions about Iranian traditions, which we might regard as the literary foundation of the <em>Shahnameh<\/em> itself (with or without illustrations). It seems plausible to conclude that it was in Sogdiana rather than in Persia where many pre-Islamic Iranian traditions were preserved. Images such as those depicted in the Sogdian paintings at Panjikent did not appear in pre-Islamic Persian art because the Sasanians identified more with Isfandyar, the champion of Zoroastrianism, than they did with Rustam, who was treated as a heretic (Browne 1900: 206-11). Only several centuries later was Rustam accepted in Islamic Persia as a proper Iranian hero; or, in his case, as an \u201cIranized prophet,\u201d just as another antagonist of Zoroastrian literature\u2014Alexander the Great\u2014was treated before him.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Author<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Matteo Compareti<\/strong> currently teaches the history of pre-Islamic Central Asian art at Shaanxi Normal University in Xi\u2019an, China. Previously he was Guitty Azarpay Distinguished Visiting Professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His research interests include the iconography of so-called Zoroastrian deities in Sasanian art and pre-Islamic Sogdian paintings. He has published in Italian, English, and Chinese. Among his more recent publications are <em>Samarkand the Center of the World: Proposals for the Indentification of the Afr\u0101sy\u0101b Paintings<\/em> (Mazda: Costa Mesa, 2016) and \u201cThe Late Sasanian Figurative Capitals at Taq-i Bustan: Proposals Regarding Identification and Origins,\u201d in Yuka Kadoi, ed., <em>Persian Art: Image-Making in Eurasia<\/em> (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018): 20-36. E-mail: &lt;compareti@hotmail.com&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">References<\/span><\/h4>\n<div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>Adamova and Gjuzal\u2019jan 1985<\/strong><br \/>\nAdel\u2019 T. Adamova and Leon T. Gjuzal\u2019jan. <em>Miniatjury rukopisi poemy \u201cShahname\u201d 1333 goda<\/em> [Miniatures of the manuscript poem \u201cShahname\u201d from year 1333]. Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1985.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Angelini 2010<\/strong><br \/>\nAnna Angelini. \u201cInghiottiti e inghiottitori: di alcuni mostri del mito antico\u201d [Swallowed ones and swallowers: on some monsters of ancient myth]. In: Simone Beta and Francesca Marzari, eds., <em>Zoomania. Animali, ibridi, mostri nelle culture umane<\/em>, Firenze: Cadmo, 2010: 237-64.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Azarpay 1981<\/strong><br \/>\nGuitty Azarpay. <em>Sogdian Painting:\u2008The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art<\/em>. Berkeley:\u2008University of California Press, 1981.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Belenitskii and Marshak 1981<\/strong><br \/>\nAleksandr M. Belenitskii and Boris I. Marshak. \u201cThe Paintings of Sogdiana.\u201d In: Guitty Azarpay, ed., <em>Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art<\/em>. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1981: 11-77.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Browne 1900<\/strong><br \/>\nEdward G. Browne. \u201cSome Account of the Arabic Work Entitled \u201cNih\u00e1yau\u2019l-irab fi akhb\u00e1ri\u2019l-Furs wa\u2019l-\u2018Arab,\u201d Particularly of that Part which Treats of the Persian Kings.\u201d <em>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society<\/em> 32, no. 2 (1900): 195-259.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Bubnova 2016<\/strong><br \/>\nMirra Alekseevna Bubnova. \u201cEarly Medieval Ages.\u201d In: Rahim Masov, Saidmurod Bobomulloev, and Mirra Bubnova, eds., <em>National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan<\/em>, Dushanbe, 2016: 139-85.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Carboni 1988a<\/strong><br \/>\nStefano Carboni. \u201cRicostruzione del ciclo pittorico del Kit\u0101b al-bulh\u0101n di Oxford: le miniature delle copie ottomane mancanti nell\u2019originale\u201d [Reconstruction of the painted program of Kit\u0101b al-bulh\u0101n in Oxford: the miniatures of the Ottoman copies which do not appear in the original text]. <em>Annali di Ca\u2019 Foscari<\/em> 27, no. 3 (1988): 97-126.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Carboni 1988b<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. <em>Il Kit\u0101b al-bulh\u0101n di Oxford<\/em> [The Kit\u0101b al-bulh\u0101n of Oxford]. Torino: Editrice Tirrenia Stampatori, 1988.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Childs 2003<\/strong><br \/>\nWilliam A.P. Childs. \u201cThe Human Animal: The Near East and Greece.\u201d In: J. Michael Padgett, ed., <em>The Centaur\u2019s Smile: The Human Animal in Early Greek Art<\/em>, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003: 49-70.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2016a<\/strong><br \/>\nMatteo Compareti. \u201cFlying over Boundaries: Auspicious Birds in Sino-Sogdian Funerary Art.\u201d In: Stefano Pell\u00f2, ed., <em>Borders Itineraries on the Edges of Iran<\/em>, Venezia, 2016: 119-53.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2016b<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cLa raffigurazione della \u2018gloria iranica\u2019 nell\u2019arte persiana e la sua distinzione dall\u2019uccello fenice\/<em>simurgh<\/em>\u201d [The representation of the \u201cIranian Glory\u201d in Persian art and its distinction from the phoenix\/<em>simurgh<\/em> bird]. <em>Archivi di Studi Indo-Mediterranei<\/em> (2016), No. VI. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Available online<\/span>: <a href=\"http:\/\/kharabat.altervista.org\/RSIM6_Compareti_Manifestazione_Goria.pdf\">http:\/\/kharabat.altervista.org\/RSIM6_Compareti_Manifestazione_Goria.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2018<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cImages of the Gorgon in Persian Tradition and Islamic Book Illustrations.\u201d In: Matteo Compareti, ed., <em>Fabulous Creatures and Spirits in Ancient Iranian Culture<\/em>. Proceedings of a Workshop at the Near Eastern Department, University of California Berkeley, Bologna: Persiani Editore, 2018: 121-51.<\/p>\n<p><strong>During 1988-89<\/strong><br \/>\nJean During. \u201cLe mythe du Simorgh dans la musique extatique du Baluchistan.\u201d <em>Luqm\u0101n<\/em> V, no. 1 (1988-89): 21-38.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Grenet 2015<\/strong><br \/>\nFrantz Grenet. \u201cBetween Written Texts, Oral Performances and Mural Paintings: Illustrated Scrolls in Pre-Islamic Central Asia.\u201d In: Julia Rubanovich, ed., <em>Orality and Textuality in the Iranian World. Patterns of Interaction across the Centuries<\/em>, Leiden: Brill, 2015: 423-29.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Harper 2006<\/strong><br \/>\nPrudence O. Harper. <em>In Search of a Cultural Identity: Monuments and Artifacts of the Sasanian Near East, 3rd to 7th Century A.D.<\/em> New York: Bibliotheca Persica, 2006.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kuehn 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nSara Kuehn. \u201cThe Dragon Fighter: The Influence of Zoroastrian Ideas on Judaeo-Christian and Islamic Iconography.\u201d <em>ARAM Periodical<\/em> 26, no. 1-2 (2014): 59-92.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kurbanov et al. 2017<\/strong><br \/>\nSharof F. Kurbanov, Abdurahmon G. Pulatov, and Alexej G. Akulov. \u201cZavershenie rabot na ob\u2019ekte XXVI\u201d [Conclusive works in sector XXVI] In: <em>Materialy Pendzhikentskoj arhelogicheskoj ekspedicii<\/em>, XXI, Sankt-Peterburg: Gosudartvennyj Ermitazh, 2017: 5-15.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Lurje 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nPavel B. Lurje. \u201cKtolkovaniu syuzhetov i nadpisej pendzhikentskogo zala c Rustamom [Some comments about the subjects and inscriptions of the Rustam Room at Panjikent].\u201d <em>Trudy Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha<\/em> LXXII (2014): 95-102.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Magistro 2000<\/strong><br \/>\nMaria Rita Magistro. \u201cAlcuni aspetti della glittica sacro-magica sasanide: il \u2018Cavaliere nimbato\u2019\u201d [Aspects of holy-magic Sasanian glyptic: the \u201chaloed horseman\u201d]. <em>Studia Iranica<\/em> 29, no. 2 (2000): 167-94.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Marshak 2002<\/strong><br \/>\nBoris I. Marshak. <em>Legends, Tales, and Fables in the Art of Sogdiana<\/em>. New York: Bibliotheca Persica Press, 2002.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Melikoff 1962<\/strong><br \/>\nIrene Melikoff. <em>Ab\u016b Muslim. Le \u201c<\/em>porte-hache<em>\u201d du Khorassan dans la tradition \u00e9pique turco\u2013iranienne<\/em>. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1962.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Miller 2018<\/strong><br \/>\nRobert Miller. <em>The Dragons in the Bible and Beyond<\/em>. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2018.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mode 1987<\/strong><br \/>\nMarkus Mode. \u201cDie Gottheit mit den Drachenschultern (zur Herkun und Identit\u00e4t des \u201c\u1e0ca\u1e25\u1e25\u0101k\u201d von Pend\u017eikent).\u201d <em>Hallesche Beitr\u00e4ge zur Orientwissenschaft<\/em> 11 (1987): 65-81.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Noja 1983<\/strong><br \/>\nSergio Noja. \u201cLes chevaux ail\u00e9s de \u2018\u0100\u2018i\u0161ah &#8211; Dieu soit satisfait avec elle &#8211; et les <em>ban\u0101t<\/em>.\u201d <em>Annali dell\u2019Istituto Orientale di Napoli<\/em> 43, no. 1 (1983): 33-42.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Ogden 2013<\/strong><br \/>\nDaniel Ogden. <em>Drak\u014dn. Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman World<\/em>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rempel\u2019 1987<\/strong><br \/>\nLazar\u2019 I. Rempel\u2019. <em>Cep\u2019 vremeni. Vekovye obrazy i brodjachie syuzhety v tradicionnom iskusstve Srednej Azii<\/em> [The chain of time. Secular images and wandering subjects in the artistic tradition of Central Asia]. Tashkent, 1987.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Ritter 2010<\/strong><br \/>\nNils C. Ritter. <em>Die altorientalischen Traditionen der sasanidischen Glyptik. Form, Gebauch, Ikonographie<\/em>. Wien-Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2010.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Scarcia 2003<\/strong><br \/>\nGianroberto Scarcia. \u201cSulla Fenice dei Baluci\u201d [On the phoenix of Baluchistan]. In: <em>Il falcone di Bistam. Intorno all\u2019iranica Fenice\/Samand: un progetto di sintesi per il volo del Pegaso iranico tra Ponto, Alessandretta e Insulindia<\/em>, ed. Matteo Compareti and Gianroberto Scarcia, Venezia: Cafoscarina, 2003: 7-26.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Schmitz 1997<\/strong><br \/>\nBarbara Schmitz. <em>Islamic and Indian Manuscripts and Paintings in the Pierpont Morgan Library<\/em>. New York: The Pierpont Morgan Library, 1997.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Schwartz 2012<\/strong><br \/>\nMartin Schwartz. \u201cTransformations of the Indo-Iranian Snake-Man: Myth, Languages, Ethnoarchaeology, and Iranian Identity.\u201d <em>Iranian Studies<\/em> 45, no. 2 (2012): 275-79.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Sims-Williams 1976<\/strong><br \/>\nNicholas Sims-Williams. \u201cThe Sogdian Fragments of the British Library.\u201d <em>Indo Iranian Journal<\/em> 18 (1976): 43-82.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Sims-Williams 2004<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cRustam Fragment.\u201d In: Susan Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams, eds., <em>The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith<\/em>, London: The British Library, 2004: 119.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Stchoukine 1966<\/strong><br \/>\nIvan Stchoukine. <em>La peinture turque d\u2019apr\u00e9s les manuscrits illustr\u00e9s. 1er partie de Sulaym\u0101n Ier \u00e0 \u2018Osm\u0101n II (1520\u20131622)<\/em>. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1966.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Vernanat 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nJean-Pierre Vernant. <em>La mort dans les yeux. Figures de l\u2019autre en Grece ancienne<\/em>. Paris: Hachette, 1985.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Vogelsang 2013<\/strong><br \/>\nWillem J. Vogelsang. \u201cChinese Influence on Iranian Art in the Mongol Empire.\u201d In: William W. Fitzhugh, Morris Rossabi, and William Honeychurch, eds., <em>Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire<\/em>, Houston: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013: 232-37.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yarshater 1998<\/strong><br \/>\nEhsan Yarshater. \u201cEsfand\u012b\u0101r.\u201d In: Ehsan Yarshater, ed., <em>Encyclopaedia Iranica<\/em>, vol. VIII, Costa Mesa CA, 1998: 584-92.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yoshida 2013<\/strong><br \/>\nYutaka Yoshida. \u201cHeroes of the Shahnama in a Turfan Sogdian Text: A Sogdian Fragment Found in the Lushun Otani Collection.\u201d In: Pavel B. Lurje, Asan I. Torgoev, eds., <em>Sogdians: Their Precursors, Contemporaries and Heirs<\/em>, St. Petersburg: The State Hermitage Publishers, 2013: 201-18.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Endnotes<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><sup>1<\/sup> A description of this tympanum, accompanied by better images, was presented by Pavel Lurje at the \u201cL\u2019Ustrushana dans l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9 et le haut Moyen \u00c2ge: des marges de l\u2019\u0153koum\u00e8ne au c\u0153ur du pouvoir Abbasside\u201d conference in Paris, May 18, 2018. A recording of Lurje\u2019s paper, \u201cSome Thoughts on Wooden Lunette from the Qahqaha Palace,\u201d is available online: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.college-de-france.fr\/site\/frantz-grenet\/symposium-2018-05-18-11h45.htm\">http:\/\/www.college-de-france.fr\/site\/frantz-grenet\/symposium-2018-05-18-11h45.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p><sup>2<\/sup> Some other fragmentary Sogdian texts dealing with Rustam and the <em>Simurgh<\/em> are kept in Japan (Yoshida 2013).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 91\u201399.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Matteo Compareti School of History and Civilization Shaanxi Normal University &nbsp; Since its discovery in the 1950s, the so-called \u201cBlue Hall\u201d at Panjikent has been considered a masterpiece of Sogdian art. Its paintings include a continuous program developing along the four walls, dedicated mainly to the great eastern Iranian hero Rustam, who is immediately recognizable [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-660","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/660","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=660"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/660\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=660"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":644,"date":"2019-03-29T02:36:00","date_gmt":"2019-03-29T02:36:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=644"},"modified":"2019-03-29T03:08:03","modified_gmt":"2019-03-29T03:08:03","slug":"v16_2018_li_sifei","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_li_sifei\/","title":{"rendered":"Caravan Routes East of Chang&#8217;an: Iranian Elements in the Buddhist Art of Shandong Province"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Li Sifei \u674e\u601d\u98de<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Shandong Province \u5c71\u6771 is extremely rich in Buddhist monuments and it is still a very popular destination for pilgrims who continue to visit the region from many parts of China and even Korea and Japan. One of the most well-known sites in Shandong is Qingzhou \u9752\u5dde, owing to the large number of Buddhist statues that have been found there in recent times.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_646\" style=\"width: 253px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-646\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-646\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-243x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"243\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-243x300.jpg 243w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-768x946.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-831x1024.jpg 831w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-695x856.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-1-122x150.jpg 122w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 243px) 100vw, 243px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-646\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. Foreigners depicted on the garment of a Buddha statue found in Qingzhou. All sketches by the author.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Scholars have been drawn to the statues in Qingzhou for their unique decoration. Some statues even contain painted scenes on the chest of a buddha or bodhisattvas. Among the most interesting painted decorations on these statues are those that depict groups of people from Central Asia. In these depictions, Chinese artists paid special attention to the portrayal of exotic peculiarities, such as caftans and boots, but also prominent noses, curly hair, and beards [<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong>]. These characteristics are usually understood by scholars as a reference to people from far western lands, in particular the Sogdians, who were especially active in China during the sixth and seventh centuries C.E. (Qingzhou shi bowuguan 1999: fig. 131).<\/p>\n<p>In this article I would like to highlight those Shandong monuments that have received less scholarly attention. These monuments also include representations of exotic goods or foreigners who travelled along the so-called \u201cSilk Roads\u201d between Central Asia and China in pre-Islamic times. It seems highly probable that claims of Persian identity or Persian artwork, which appeared so prominently in Chinese art and texts during the Northern Zhou, Sui, and Tang dynasties, were actually mediated by Central Asian Sogdians. During these periods, very few Persians arrived in China. By contrast, Sogdians had started to immigrate and settle in Chinese lands at least since the fourth century. In all probability, Sogdian tradesmen, intent on securing a higher price for their services and wares, managed to present themselves and their products as Persian to Chinese elites who were unable to tell the difference.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The &#8220;Persian Man&#8221; of the Tuoshan Caves<\/span><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_647\" style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-647\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-647\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-695x927.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-2-113x150.jpg 113w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-647\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 2. The so called \u201cPersian man\u201d in the Tuoshan caves. Photo by author.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Lesser known Buddhist monuments of the Qingzhou region include the Tuoshan \u9a7c\u5c71 Caves, which date to the late Northern\u00a0Zhou and early Sui period. Among the five grottoes of the Tuoshan complex, the one usually referred to as No. 2 [<strong>Fig. 2<\/strong>] presents the image of a person wearing non-Chinese garments. This image has traditionally been referred to by the locals as the \u201cPersian man\u201d (<em>Bosiren<\/em> \u6ce2\u65af\u4eba) (Yan 1957: 33; Li 1998). Images of culturally and ethnically alien peoples appear often in Buddhist art, including the Buddhist art of China during this era. However, in light of the fact that Buddhism is rarely attested to in Persia, this statue of a Persian man in the Tuoshan grottoes is worthy of note.<\/p>\n<p>Between 224-651 C.E., Persia was dominated by the Sasanian Dynasty, and the main religion was Zoroastrianism (also known as \u201cMazdeism,\u201d after its chief deity Ahura Mazda). Other religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, along with other Zoroastrian \u201csects,\u201d were practiced by various groups of followers within the multiethnic Persian Empire and were generally not persecuted. In the Margiana and Bactria-Tokharistan regions of the easternmost fringes of the Sasanian Empire, however, Buddhism had many more followers than in the Sasanian core. Not only that, but the Sasanians had been exchanging embassies with different Chinese courts since at least 455 C.E. (Ecsedy 1979: 155).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_648\" style=\"width: 169px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-648\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-648\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-159x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"159\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-159x300.jpg 159w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-768x1450.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-542x1024.jpg 542w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-695x1312.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-3-79x150.jpg 79w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 159px) 100vw, 159px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-648\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 3. The statue of Peroz at Qianling. Photo by Matteo Compareti.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Peroz III, the son of Yazdigard III (632-651), the last Sasanian sovereign, lived in exile at Chang\u2019an after being welcomed by Tang Gaozong (650-683). Chinese chronicles reported Peroz\u2019s name as\u00a0<em>Beilusi<\/em> \u5351\u8def\u65af and in other related forms, all of which correspond quite precisely to \u201cPeroz.\u201d Peroz was able to obtain a prominent position at the Chinese court. His now headless statue, accompanied by an inscription on the back recording his title, can still be seen at the mausoleum of Emperor Gaozong \u5510\u9ad8\u5b97 and Empress Wu Zetian \u6b66\u5247\u5929 at Qianling \u4e7e\u9675 (Compareti 2003: 203; Compareti 2009a). The garments on Peroz\u2019s statue include a simple long robe with an undecorated belt and a hanging bag, all quite similar to those of many other statues at Qianling [<strong>Fig. 3<\/strong>]. In particular, the hanging bag, usually referred to in Chinese as a\u00a0<em>pannang<\/em> \u97b6\u56ca pouch, have long been associated with the <em>Hu<\/em> \u80e1 people, a term which was commonly used in Chinese to refer to foreigners, especially Sogdians (Qi 2018).<\/p>\n<p>Because the face of the so-called Persian man in Grotto No. 2 at Tuoshan has been destroyed, it is no longer possible to determine if he had a beard. Though his robe is long and plain, every detail of the opening on both sides on his chest and leather belt are reproduced with precision. These characteristics differ from those of the statue of Peroz at Qianling, though they do resemble those of some other statues of foreigners at that same site [<strong>Fig. 4<\/strong>]. Unfortunately, other inscriptions reproduced on the statues at Qianling are extremely enigmatic and it is not always easy to determine the identities of these foreign officials. We might consider the open garments on the chest, like those in the statues at Tuoshan and Qianling, as typical representations of the clothing of people from Central Asia.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_649\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-649\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-649\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-4-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-649\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 4. The statue of a foreigner at Qianling. Photo by Matteo Compareti.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>It is, however, impossible to identify such people with any precision, given that Persians, Sogdians, Bactrians, Turks, and other Central Asians were all depicted in Chinese statuary. At least one statue at Qianling is portrayed with long hair woven into braids, a feature which might identify him as a Turk. His garment is opened at the chest, but not in the same style as on the statue at Tuoshan. Turks adorned in a robe exactly like that depicted at Tuoshan can also be observed in the mid-seventh century Sogdian painting at Afrasiab [<strong>Fig. 5<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_650\" style=\"width: 226px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-650\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-650\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-216x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"216\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5-108x150.jpg 108w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-5.jpg 416w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 216px) 100vw, 216px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-650\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 5. Turks in a Sogdian painting at Afrasiab (pre-Islamic Samarkand). (After: Arzhantseva and Inevatkina 2006: fig 2)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Afrasiab, situated on the northern edge of a settlement that would later become Timurid Samarkand, was one of the richest and most powerful Sogdian cities between the sixth to eighth centuries. Previous studies of Sogdian and Turkish attire have concluded that both of these peoples shared very similar garments and fashion in common (Yatsenko 2009; Yatsenko 2012). In addition, seventh- and eighth-century paintings at Panjikent, an important archaeological site now located in Tajikistan, also depict Sogdian people and deities wearing these types of garments, which are further embellished with decorations commonly referred to as \u201cpearl roundels\u201d [<strong>Fig. 6<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_651\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-651\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-651\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-300x252.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"252\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-300x252.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-768x646.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-1024x862.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-695x585.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-6-178x150.jpg 178w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-651\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 6. Sketch of garments embellished with pearl roundels in a Sogdian painting at Panjikent (room 10\/sector XVII), The State Hermitage.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>At least two images of a \u201cman of Persia\u201d can be found in ancient Chinese art. The \u201cTribute Office Scroll\u201d (<em>Zhigong tu<\/em> \u8077\u8ca2\u5716),\u00a0now held in the National Museum of China and based on an original by Xiao Yi \u856d\u7e79 of the Liang Dynasty (502-556), is dated to 1077. It reproduces several foreigners, including a \u201cPersian ambassador\u201d (<em>Bosi guo shi<\/em> \u6ce2\u65af\u570b\u4f7f) [<strong>Fig. 7<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_652\" style=\"width: 131px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-652\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-652\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-7-121x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"121\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-7-121x300.jpg 121w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-7-60x150.jpg 60w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-7.jpg 241w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 121px) 100vw, 121px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-652\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 7. The \u201cPersian ambassador\u201d in the \u201cTribute Office Scroll\u201d (Zhigong tu \u8077\u8ca2\u5716). (After: Compareti 2003: fig 1)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>It appears that none of these foreigners were represented accurately, likely due to the fact that Xiao Yi was working from second-hand descriptions (Compareti 2003: 202-3; Compareti 2009a). The other\u00a0\u201cman of Persia\u201d (<em>Bosi guo ren<\/em> \u6ce2\u65af\u570b\u4eba) can be observed in a ninth-century rock relief in the Jianchuan \u528d\u5ddd caves in Yunnan Province. As in the Tuoshan statue, the face on this statue was also deliberately destroyed at some point [<strong>Fig. 8<\/strong>], and nothing in his garments or accessories indicates Persian fashion (Compareti 2003: 204; Compareti 2009a). In both cases, their identifications as a \u201cman of Persia\u201d is attested to solely by an inscription that is reproduced with the image. Most likely, these \u201cmen of Persia\u201d were represented by\u00a0Chinese artists who did not have the opportunity to observe their subjects first hand.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_653\" style=\"width: 212px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-8.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-653\" class=\"size-full wp-image-653\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-8.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"202\" height=\"232\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-8.jpg 202w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-8-131x150.jpg 131w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 202px) 100vw, 202px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-653\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 8. The \u201cman of Persia.\u201d Rock relief in Jianchuan caves. (After: Compareti 2003: fig 4)<\/p><\/div>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The Statue of a Monk from Boxing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Neither the \u201cPersian ambassador\u201d in the \u201cTribute Office Scroll\u201d by Xiao Yi nor the \u201cman of Persia\u201d from the Jianchuan caves reveal any special textile decorations. As mentioned above, among the most typically \u201cPersian\u201d patterns for clothes, the so-called \u201cpearl roundel\u201d was certainly the most popular and widespread.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_654\" style=\"width: 120px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-654\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-654\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-110x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"110\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-110x300.jpg 110w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-768x2095.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-375x1024.jpg 375w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-695x1895.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9-55x150.jpg 55w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-9.jpg 1320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 110px) 100vw, 110px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-654\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 9. Sketch of a maidservant wearing a garment adorned with pearl roundels in the wall painting of the Xu Xianxiu tomb.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although scholars have long considered the pearl roundel decorative pattern as a specifically Sasanian motif, it appears only very rarely in pre-Islamic Persian art. It is more commonly found on late Sasanian rock reliefs and architectural decorations in stucco (Compareti 2005; Compareti 2009b). It is possible that the pearl roundel decorative motif was actually created in Sogdiana, where it is reproduced very often on the clothes of local deities and other people. In China, textiles embellished with pearl roundels appear for the first time as part of the garments worn by prominent figures in the tomb murals of Xu Xianxiu \u5f90\u986f\u79c0, an officer who died during the Northern Qi era (550-577). In one case, a wall painting [<strong>Fig. 9<\/strong>] contained in the Xu Xianxiu tomb depicts pearl roundels on a saddlecloth and the garments of a servant. Inside each pearl roundel is a single human head, which, because of the headgear, appears to depict a bodhisattva. As is well known, the Northern Qi rulers had very close relations with Sogdian immigrants and were avid patrons of Buddhism. Moreover, Sogdian immigrants are often mentioned in Chinese written sources. Persians, however, who came from a land where Buddhism was scarce, rarely make an appearance in Chinese texts. For this reason, it is much more probable that textiles decorated with pearl roundels were introduced into China by Sogdians rather than Persians (Compareti 2004).<\/p>\n<p>One statue of a Buddhist monk, now kept in the Boxing Archaeological Museum in Boxing \u535a\u5174, Shandong, presents some unexpected and extremely interesting details (Zhang 2015). Though the statue is unfortunately badly damaged in the upper part, it is the box in the hands of the monk that has drawn the attention of scholars. Among the precious decorations reproduced in relief on the box is a pearl roundel containing an animal, most likely a bird [<strong>Fig. 10<\/strong>]. Boxes like this one have been found in China proper, and others, embellished with very similar decorations, have been excavated in Xinjiang as well (Yu 2018: 165). In at least one Buddhist box (possibly a <em>sarira<\/em>, a container for holy relics) found by chance around Kucha [<strong>Fig. 11<\/strong>] and currently kept in the Tokyo National Museum, typical Iranian pearl roundels can be observed on the upper lid. Due to similarities with such roundels found in China about this time, it is likely that this Kuchean box dates to around the seventh century.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_655\" style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-655\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-655\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10-695x927.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-10-113x150.jpg 113w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-655\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 10. A box embellished with the pearl roundel decoration in the hands of a Buddhist monk statue. Photo by author.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_656\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-656\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-300x264.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"264\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-300x264.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-768x675.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-1024x900.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-695x611.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-11-171x150.jpg 171w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-656\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 11. Sketch of the sarira box from Kucha in Tokyo National Museum.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>It is highly probable that the box on the statue from Boxing [<strong>Fig. 10<\/strong>] is a detailed reproduction of a precious object that was either imported from abroad or locally produced in a Chinese Buddhist context. Objects like this are extremely rare in Chinese art, though they are described in written sources. According to Chapter 68 of the\u00a0<em>Chronicle of the Sui Dynasty<\/em> (<em>Suishu<\/em> \u968b\u66f8) during the time of Emperors Wendi \u968b\u6587\u5e1d (581-604) and Yangdi \u968b\u716c\u5e1d (604-617), a man of foreign origins called \u201cHe Chou\u201d \u4f55\u7a20 was appointed by official decree to produce glazed tiles, glass, and textiles in a \u201cPersian style\u201d in some workshops in the region of Shu \u8700 (modern Sichuan). Unfortunately, no detailed description of this \u201cPersian style\u201d of decorations can be found in Chinese sources. In a recent comment on the \u201cPersian style\u201d textiles produced by He Chou, some scholars proposed to identify those decorations with pearl roundels, which are considered to be typically Persian (de la Vaissi\u00e8re and Trombert 2004: 941).<\/p>\n<p>However, neither the\u00a0<em>Chronicle of the Sui Dynasty<\/em> nor other Chinese written sources\u2014including those that include the He Chou biography, such as the <em>Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government<\/em> (<em>Zizhi tongjian<\/em> \u8cc7\u6cbb\u901a\u9452)\u2014reveal such a precise description. The\u00a0<em>Chronicle of the Sui Dynasty<\/em> only mentions a golden thread woven together with that Persian textile, but no pearl roundels. Moreover, the surname of He Chou clearly points to origins in central Sogdiana, more precisely in Kushanya. As already proposed by Matteo Compareti, it is very likely that skilled Sogdian merchants represented their own products as Persian to various Chinese courts so as to increase their aura of exoticism and thus fetch a higher price for their sale (Compareti 2011).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_657\" style=\"width: 151px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-12.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-657\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-657\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-12-141x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"141\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-12-141x300.jpg 141w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-12-71x150.jpg 71w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-12.jpg 303w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 141px) 100vw, 141px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-657\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 12. Coffin surface embellished with pearl roundels from the Li He tomb. (After: Finsterbusch 1976: pl. 14)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>As already mentioned above, pearl roundel decorations appear very rarely in Chinese art. The only other obvious specimen to be found in China proper is represented by the Li He coffin of the Sui Dynasty period. The edges of the coffin are embellished with pearl roundels [<strong>Fig. 12<\/strong>] that contain the heads of various humans, animals, and monsters (Finsterbusch 1976: pl. 14). It is worth observing, however, that Li\u2019s personal name, as revealed on his epitaph, was Li Shijun, which reminds us of the Sogdian Shi Jun\/Wirkak, whose sarcophagus was found in Xi\u2019an (Shaanxi sheng wenwu guanli weiyuanhui 1966: 33). Another possible example of the pearl roundel motif was identified on the belt of a sixth-century Buddhist statue from Sichuan, though upon closer examination it does not seem to be exactly the same pearl roundel decoration (Shi 2014: 81-90).<\/p>\n<p>During recent excavations at Shoroon Bumbagar in Mongolia, archaeologists uncovered an early seventh-century Turkish tomb in classic Tang style (Erdenebol 2017: fig. 16). Among the finds were many funerary statuettes (<em>mingqi<\/em> \u660e\u5668 or \u51a5\u5668), some of which evinced garments embellished with pearl roundels. At least one other such funerary statuette has been found in an early tomb of the Astana cemetery in Turfan, and is now kept in the Xinjiang Museum in Urumqi (Gasparini 2014: fig. 7). Some other Tang\u00a0funerary statuettes, excavated at the tomb of Prince Yi De \u61ff\u5fb7 at Qianling, are in the shape of mounted soldiers, whose equine armor [<strong>Fig. 13<\/strong>] is embellished with pearl roundels. It is difficult to determine if these soldiers should be classified as being of Chinese or foreign origin, though the presence of pearl roundels suggests a foreign origin.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_658\" style=\"width: 217px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-658\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-658\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-207x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"207\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-207x300.jpg 207w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-768x1114.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-706x1024.jpg 706w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-695x1008.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/fig.-13-new-103x150.jpg 103w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 207px) 100vw, 207px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-658\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 13. The statuette of a mounted soldier whose equine armor is embellished with pearl roundels, from the tomb of prince Yi De at Qianling. Photo by author.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>For all of these reasons, it does not seem that the Chinese upper classes demonstrated any particular affection for pearl roundels on textiles or other objects. On the contrary, it was likely foreigners living in China or \u201cbarbarized\u201d Chinese living in Turfan who tended to appreciate this kind of decoration. In all probability, however, pearl roundels were not a pure Sasanian or Persian creation, but were instead most likely a product of Sogdian weavers and artists who represented their goods as \u201cPersian.\u201d The production of textiles embellished with pearl roundels, it seems, was a specialty both in the Sogdian motherland and in the Sogdian communities of China.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Conclusion<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>From the Northern Zhou to the mid-Tang era, the upper classes of China seem to have identified \u201cmen of Persia\u201d (<em>Bosiren<\/em> or <em>Bosi guo ren<\/em>) as the most refined producers of exotic goods from the Western Regions. This is curious, for, as we have seen, it was the Sogdians who, by at least the fourth century C.E., constituted the earliest and most numerous migrants into China from western lands. Persians, however, did not arrive in Chinese courts until several centuries later. Not only were \u201cPersian\u201d products highly esteemed in China, but the image of the \u201cvicious Persian magician\u201d also started to appear as a protagonist in Chinese fiction during the Tang dynasty (Schafer 1951). And yet it is unlikely that precise information about Sasanian Persia circulated in China proper during this time frame. Therefore, it seems probable that some \u201cPersian\u201d goods presented at Chinese courts by westerners during this era were not presented by actual Persians or even produced in an authentic Persian style. Rather, they seem to have been products of the Sogdian homeland in Central Asia or were produced by Sogdians living in China, such as was evident in the case of He Chou.<\/p>\n<p>Undoubtedly, the Chinese had some knowledge of the Persians, and it is possible that Chinese artists might have been able to model their works on those Sasanian envoys who began to arrive in the territory of China in the mid-fifth century (Compareti 2003). But it seems probable that the image of \u201cPersia\u201d that most Chinese elites held\u2014a wonderful land from whence glass, metalwork, textiles, and other exotic goods originated\u2014was mediated largely by the Sogdians. Perhaps it is for this reason that the statue of a generic foreigner from the west is still identified by the local people of Shandong as a \u201cman of Persia,\u201d even if it was probably a Sogdian or a man from another Central Asian region.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Author<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Li Sifei \u674e\u601d\u98de<\/strong> is an independent scholar. She received her B.A. in art design from Beihang University, and her M.A. in philosophy from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Her main interests focus on Hellenistic art and culture in Asia, along with cultural interactions between China and the West along the Silk Road. She is the author of <em>Shenxing, renxing, shixing de jiaoxiang: Xila renti diaosu yishu shangxi<\/em> \u795e\u6027, \u4eba\u6027, \u8bd7\u6027\u7684\u4ea4\u54cd\uff1a\u5e0c\u814a\u4eba\u4f53\u96d5\u5851\u827a\u672f\u8d4f\u6790 [Symphony of divinity, humanity and poetics: an appreciation of Greek statuary] (Nanjing, 2016). E-mail: &lt;lsf_1019@126.com&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">References<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Arzhantseva and Inevatkina 2006<\/strong><br \/>\nIrina Arzhantseva and Olga Inevatkina. &#8220;Afrasiab wall-painting revisited: new discoveries twenty-five years old.&#8221; In: M.Compareti and \u00c9. de la Vaissi\u00e8re , ed.,\u00a0<em>Royal Nau<\/em><em>r\u016bz in Samarkand: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Venice on the Pre-Islamic Paintings at Afrasiab, <\/em>Pisa-Roma: Accademia, 2006, 185-212.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2003\u00a0<\/strong><br \/>\nMatteo Compareti. \u201cThe Last Sasanians in China.\u201d <em>Eurasian Studies\u00a0<\/em>II\/2 (2003): 197-213.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2004<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Sasanian and the Sogdian \u2018Pearl Roundel\u2019 Design: Remarks on an Iranian Decorative Pattern.\u201d <em>The Study of Art History\u00a0<\/em>6 (2004): 259-72.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2005<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cSasanian Textile Art: An Iconographic Approach.\u201d\u00a0<em>Studies on Persianate Societies\u00a0<\/em>3 (2005): 143-63.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2009a<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cChinese-Iranian relations: The Last Sasanians in China.\u201d <em>Encyclopaedia Iranica<\/em>. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Available online<\/span>: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.iranicaonline.org\/articles\/china-xv-the-last-sasanians-in-china\">http:\/\/www.iranicaonline.org\/articles\/china-xv-the-last-sasanians-in-china<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2009b<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cSasanian Textiles: An Iconographical Approach.\u201d <em>Encyclopaedia Iranica<\/em>. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Available online<\/span>: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.iranicaonline.org\/articles\/sasanian-textiles\">http:\/\/www.iranicaonline.org\/articles\/sasanian-textiles<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Compareti 2011<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cUn sogdiano alla corte cinese: qualche osservazione sulla biografia di He Chou.\u201d In:\u00a0G.G. Filippi ed., <em>Il concetto di uomo nelle societ\u00e0 del Vicino Oriente e dell\u2019Asia Meridionale. Studi in onore di Mario Nordio<\/em>, Venezia: Cafoscarina, 2011: 227-37.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Ecsedy 1979<\/strong><br \/>\nI. Ecsedy. \u201cEarly Persian Envoys in the Chinese Courts (5th-6th Centuries A.D.).\u201d In:\u00a0J. Harmatta, ed., <em>Studies in the Sources on the History of Pre-Islamic Central Asia<\/em>, Budapest: Kiad\u00f3, 1979: 153-62.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Erdenebol 2017<\/strong><br \/>\nL. Erdenebol.\u00a0\u201cPreliminary Excavation Findings from Shoroon Bumbagar, Ulaan Kherem, Mongolia.\u201d In:\u00a0E. Allinger et al., eds., <em>Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia: Processes of Transfer, Translation and Transformation in Art, Archaeology, Religion and Polity<\/em>, Wien: Verlag der \u00d6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2017: 29-54.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Finsterbusch 1976<\/strong><br \/>\nK. Finsterbusch.\u00a0<em>Zur Arch\u00e4ologie der Pei-Ch\u2019i-(550-577), und Sui-Zeit (581-618)<\/em>. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1976.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Gasparini 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nM. Gasparini.\u00a0\u201cA Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin.\u201d <em>Transcultural Studies\u00a0<\/em>1 (2014): 134-63.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Li 1998<\/strong><br \/>\nLi Yuqun \u674e\u88d5\u7fa4. \u201cTuoshan shiku kaizao niandai yu zaoxiang ticai kao\u201d \u9a7c\u5c71\u77f3\u7a9f\u5f00\u51ff\u5e74\u4ee3\u4e0e\u9020\u50cf\u9898\u6750\u8003 [Research on the cutting period and statuary themes in the Tuoshan Caves]. <em>Wenwu\u00a0<\/em>\u6587\u7269 (1998), No. 6: 47\u201356.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Qi 2018<\/strong><br \/>\nQi Xiaoqing \u7941\u6653\u5e86. \u201cPannang ji Huren peinang xisu kao\u201d \u97b6\u56ca\u53ca\u80e1\u4eba\u4f69\u56ca\u4e60\u4fd7\u8003 [Studies on <em>pannang\u00a0<\/em>pourches and the custom of pouch wearing among the Hu people]. <em>Huaxia kaogu\u00a0<\/em>\u534e\u590f\u8003\u53e4 (2018), No. 2: 78\u201385.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Qingzhou shi bowuguan 1999<\/strong><br \/>\nQingzhou shi bowuguan \u9752\u5dde\u5e02\u535a\u7269\u9986. <em>Qingzhou Longxing si fojiao zaoxiang yishu\u00a0<\/em>\u9752\u5dde\u9f99\u5174\u5bfa\u4f5b\u6559\u9020\u50cf\u827a\u672f [The art of Buddhist statues at Longxing Temple in Qingzhou]. Jinan: Shandong meishu chubanshe, 1999.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Schafer 1951<\/strong><br \/>\nE.H. Schafer. \u201cIranian Merchants in T\u2019ang Dynasty Tales.\u201d In: W. J. Fischell, ed., <em>Semitic and Oriental Studies: A Volume Presented to William Popper<\/em>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1951: 403-22.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Shaanxi sheng wenwu guanli weiyuanhui 1966<\/strong><br \/>\nShaanxi sheng wenwu guanli weiyuanhui \u9655\u897f\u7701\u6587\u7269\u7ba1\u7406\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a. \u201cShaanxi sheng Sanyuan xian Shuangsheng cun Sui Li He Mu qingli jianbao\u201d \u9655\u897f\u7701\u4e09\u539f\u53bf\u53cc\u76db\u6751\u968b\u674e\u548c\u5893\u6e05\u7406\u7b80\u62a5 [A brief report on the Li He tomb from the Sui dynasty in Shuangsheng village, Sanyuan County, Shaanxi Province]. <em>Wenwu\u00a0<\/em>\u6587\u7269 (1966), No. 1: 27\u201333.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Shi 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nShi Ruoyu \u5e08\u82e5\u4e88. \u201cLiang datong sannian folixiang yidai wenyang de chubu yanjiu: jian tan Shu jin zhong de xiyu yinsu\u201d \u6881\u5927\u540c\u4e09\u5e74\u4f5b\u7acb\u50cf\u8863\u5e26\u7eb9\u6837\u7684\u521d\u6b65\u7814\u7a76: \u517c\u8c08\u8700\u9526\u4e2d\u7684\u897f\u57df\u56e0\u7d20 [Preliminary research on the drapery of the costume of the standing Buddha statue from the third year of the Datong era in the Liang dynasty: elements of the Western Regions in Shu brocade]. <em>Kaogu\u00a0<\/em>\u8003\u53e4 (2014), No. 11: 81\u201390.<\/p>\n<p><strong>De la Vaissi\u00e8re and Trombert 2004<\/strong><br \/>\n\u00c9tienne de la Vaissi\u00e8re and \u00c9.Trombert. \u201cDes Chinois et des Hu. Migration et integration des Iraniens orientaux en milieu chinois Durant le haut Moyen \u00c2ge.\u201d\u00a0<em>Annales\u00a0<\/em>5-6 (2004): 931-69.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yan 1957<\/strong><br \/>\nYan Wenru \u960e\u6587\u5112. \u201cYunmenshan yu Tuoshan\u201d \u4e91\u95e8\u5c71\u4e0e\u9a7c\u5c71 [Yumenshan and Tuoshan]. <em>Wenwu cankao ziliao\u00a0<\/em>\u6587\u7269\u53c2\u8003\u8d44\u6599 (1957), No. 10: 30\u201333.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yatsenko 2009<\/strong><br \/>\nS.A. Yatsenko. \u201cEarly Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art: Second Half of the 6th- First Half of the 8th cc. (Images of \u2018Others\u2019).\u201d\u00a0<em>Transoxiana\u00a0<\/em>14 (2009).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yatsenko 2012<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cSogdian Costume in Chinese and Sogdian Art of the 6th-8th Centuries.\u201d In:\u00a0G. Malinowski, A. Paro\u0144, B. Sz. Sznoniewski, eds.,\u00a0<em>Serica-Daqin: Studies in Archaeology, Philosophy and History of Sino-Western Relations<\/em>, Wroc\u0142aw: GAJT Press, 2012: 101-14.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yu 2018<\/strong><br \/>\nYu Wei \u4e8e\u8587. <em>Shengwu zhizao yu zhonggu Zhongguo fojiao sheli gongyang\u00a0<\/em>\u5723\u7269\u5236\u9020\u4e0e\u4e2d\u53e4\u4e2d\u56fd\u4f5b\u6559\u820d\u5229\u4f9b\u517b [The making of sacred goods and Buddhist reliquaries in medieval China]. Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 2018.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Zhang 2015<\/strong><br \/>\nZhang Shumin \u5f20\u6dd1\u654f. <em>Boxing wenhua daguan: fojiao zaoxiang juan\u00a0<\/em>\u535a\u5174\u6587\u5316\u5927\u89c2: \u4f5b\u6559\u9020\u50cf\u5377 [A overview of Boxing culture: Buddhist statues volume]. Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2015.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 44\u201352.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Li Sifei \u674e\u601d\u98de &nbsp; Shandong Province \u5c71\u6771 is extremely rich in Buddhist monuments and it is still a very popular destination for pilgrims who continue to visit the region from many parts of China and even Korea and Japan. One of the most well-known sites in Shandong is Qingzhou \u9752\u5dde, owing to the large number [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-644","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/644","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=644"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/644\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=644"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":641,"date":"2019-03-26T04:07:52","date_gmt":"2019-03-26T04:07:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=641"},"modified":"2019-03-26T05:06:11","modified_gmt":"2019-03-26T05:06:11","slug":"v16_2018_kulinovskaya_leus","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_kulinovskaya_leus\/","title":{"rendered":"Recent Excavations of Xiongnu Graves on the Left Bank of the Ulug-Khem in Tuva"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Marina Kulinovskaya and Pavel Leus<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Tuva (today, the Tyva Republic, part of the Russian Federation) is a land in the geographic center of Asia, surrounded by mountains and the taiga on the west, east, and north, and by the Mongolian steppes and deserts on the south [<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong>]. One finds here all the chief forms of landscape: high mountains, steppe, deserts, forests, and the taiga. The great Siberian river Yenisei arises here. It is a land which was in the epicenter of the majority of historical events, not only of the Sayan-Altai region but of all of Inner Asia. The peoples of the Bronze Age\u2014Scythians, Xiongnu, Xianbei, early Turks, Uighurs, Kyrgyz, and Mongols\u2014all left their traces here in barrows and cemeteries, ancient settlements, fortresses, and other archaeological monuments. Located on a unique crossroads of migration and trade routes, the territory of Tuva could play a central role in the political life of the whole region, witness to which are the remarkable finds in the Uyuk Basin of Tuva from the \u201croyal\u201d barrows of the early Scythian period, Arzhan (Griaznov 1980) and Arzhan-2 (\u010cugunov et al., 2010).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_590\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-590\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-590\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-300x177.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"177\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-300x177.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-695x410.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-254x150.jpg 254w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1.jpg 715w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-590\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. Map of Inner Asia and Tuva.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE the nomadic Xiongnu gathered strength in Inner Asia, extended their influence over a huge territory and, having created a unique nomadic empire, for a long time constituted a formidable adversary of all the surrounding tribes and peoples and Han China as well. The territory of the Sayan-Altai, including Tuva and the Minusinsk Basin, came into the Xiongnu sphere of influence during the northern campaign of the <em>chanyu<\/em> Mode (Maodun) in 201 BCE.<\/p>\n<p>Traces of the presence of the Xiongnu and their cultural influence have long been known in the Minusinsk Basin: finds include artifacts from the pit graves of the Tes\u2019 Archaeological Culture (Savinov 2009: 102-3) and a palace with Chinese tiles not far from Abakan, which differing opinions associate with the noted military commander Li Ling \u674e\u9675 (Kyzlasov 2001: 7) or possibly the self-proclaimed Chinese emperor Lu Fang \u76e7\u82b3, who had fled to the Xiongnu and lived among them for about a decade in the \u201840s and \u201850s CE (Kovalev 2011: 108-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet there are not so many traces of a Xiongnu presence in Tuva, on their probable route into the Minusinsk Basin. Exceptions are some chance finds (Kyzlasov 1969: 117-20; Savinov 1969: 104-8) and several excavated barrows of the Xiongnu elite in Central Tuva in the Bay-Dag 2 cemetery (Mandel\u2019shtam and Stambul\u2019nik 1992: 196-98). Unfortunately, the burials at Bay-Dag had been seriously looted in antiquity, and the materials from those excavations have yet to be published. The same is true of the materials of the very interesting Aimyrlyg XXXI cemetery, which is also located in Central Tuva (Stambul\u2019nik 1983). The variety of the burials excavated there suggest that at least some of them belong to the Xiongnu period. Moreover, some of the bronze buckles found there can be associated specifically with the Xianbei people\u2014that is, in their chronology they post-date the period of Xiongnu expansion.<\/p>\n<p>The appearance in Tuva of the Xiongnu and other peoples culturally related to them ought to be reflected as well in new archaeological monuments, in the first instance in the large cemeteries of ordinary people and in settlements known on the territory of the historical range of the Xiongnu in Mongolia, Transbaikalia, and the northern regions of China. Such is the case in the territory of the neighboring Minusinsk Basin, inter alia, in the appearance of subterranean cemeteries of the Tes\u2019 Culture which have a burial inventory that is characteristic of the Xiongnu. For a long time no such archaeological monuments had been found in Tuva, despite the extensive excavations undertaken there in the 1960s-1980s in the area where the Sayan-Shushenskoe hydroelectric station created the reservoir which then flooded a significant part of the Sayan canyon of the Yenisei River and the Central Tuvan Basin. Nonetheless, those excavations established a distinct Ulug-Khem (Tuvan \u201cGreat River\u201d = the Yenisei) Culture, which reflected a change in cultural and mortuary traditions during the post-Scythian period (Grach 1971: 99).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_591\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-591\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-591\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-300x151.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"151\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-300x151.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-768x387.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-1024x516.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-695x350.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2-298x150.jpg 298w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.2.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-591\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 2. The Sayan-Shushenskoe reservoir and the Ala-Tey and Terezin cemeteries.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In recent years, as a result of regular work on the shores of the Sayan-Shushenskoe reservoir, the Tuvan Archaeological Expedition of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute for the History of Material Culture (St. Petersburg) found two cemeteries located 4.5 km. apart [<strong>Fig. 2<\/strong>], Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin, which unquestionably date to the Xiongnu era and, moreover, to its early period. The excavations at the reservoir are receiving support from the Society for the Exploration of Eurasia (Switzerland)<sup>1<\/sup> and, beginning in 2018, the Russian Geographical Society.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_592\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-592\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-592\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.3-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-592\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 3. The Ala-Tey cemetery.<br \/>All site photos by Pavel Leus.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Ala-Tey 1 cemetery is located at the foot of a small mountain bearing the same name, which stands alone in a wide valley on the left bank of the Upper Yenisei [<strong>Fig. 3<\/strong>]. Around this mountain are several cemeteries from different historical epochs, from Scythian times up to the Middle Ages. The Ala-Tey 1 cemetery is a flat grave (or subterranean) cemetery, i.e., there are no signs of it on the surface, making it practically impossible to locate in normal circumstances. The reservoir had washed away the upper layer of sand, revealing the stone slabs of several shallow grave structures. Our expedition discovered them during the archaeological survey undertaken there in 2014.<\/p>\n<p>The first excavations showed that we had found a unique, unlooted cemetery of the Xiongnu period, which both in its culture and chronology was identical with the Terezin cemetery that had been discovered slightly earlier. Since the Ala-Tey site was more compact, it was possible there to excavate over a broad area.\u00a0Its discovery was a great achievement for archaeologists. The excavations of Ala-Tey have taken place in unusual conditions\u2014since the mid-1980s, the site is located on the bottom of the Sayan-Shushenskoe reservoir. This means that work there is possible only during a brief period, usually 3-4 weeks a year in\u00a0May to June, between the run-off from the cemetery of melt-water and its re-filling of the reservoir. During that period, the entire valley is like a desert [<strong>Fig. 4<\/strong>], but soon it fills up.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_593\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-593\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-593\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-300x179.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"179\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-300x179.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-768x458.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-1024x611.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-695x414.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.4-252x150.jpg 252w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-593\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 4. The Ala-Tey mountain and cemetery at the beginning of June, before flooding.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>During the rest of year the cemetery is at a depth of 16-17 m under water, and the Ala-Tey mountain becomes a small island [<strong>Fig. 5<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_594\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-594\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-594\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.5-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-594\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 5. The Ala-Tey mountain at the end of June, after flooding.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Terezin cemetery is located on the sandy, much eroded shore of the reservoir [<strong>Fig. 6<\/strong>] against which the water washes in August.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_595\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-595\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-595\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.6-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-595\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 6. Excavations of the Terezin cemetery.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Human bones and stone tomb structures of the first burials found here projected right out of the sand cliffs of the embankment, with artifacts from the destroyed graves scattered along the beach. It was clear that this\u00a0was a Xiongnu-era cemetery partly destroyed by the reservoir. Judging from the finds, however, it is one that had not been disturbed by ancient looters. Nonetheless, it was possible to find a few intact burials, a process which was hindered by the complicated conditions for carrying out excavations and lack of clarity about the layout of the cemetery. The destroyed burials and the objects from them were found along 1.5 km of the shore, making it necessary to excavate large areas along the cliffs in the most promising places. This project was begun in 2018 with the participation of volunteers from the Russian Geographical Society, the result being that it has been possible to determine a definite structure of the cemetery and also find a large number of intact burials both from the Xiongnu period and later ones that belonged to the Kokel\u2019 Archaeological Culture. Of great interest here was the burial of a female (T\/21<sup>2<\/sup>), who was partly mummified. The slabs of the cover of the stone coffin were fitted together so tightly that the part of the body below the waist was not covered with sand and had become mummified [<strong>Fig. 7<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_596\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-596\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-596\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-300x197.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"197\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-768x505.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-1024x674.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-695x457.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.7-228x150.jpg 228w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-596\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 7. The partially mummified burial of a young woman at Terezin (T\/21).<\/p><\/div>\n<p>To date more than 90 burials have been uncovered in the Ala-Tey 1 cemetery, and at Terezin more than 30 (part of which were destroyed by the reservoir and part of which date to the later Kokel\u2019 Culture). The excavations of the cemeteries continue, and the exact number of burials in them so far is unknown, though presumably it will be much larger. The preservation of the cemeteries from looting was likely the result of the absence of any over-grave structures, along with the sandy soil and poor ground cover [<strong>Fig. 8<\/strong>], which allow the wind to hide all traces of the burials.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_597\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-597\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-597\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-768x540.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-1024x720.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-695x489.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.8-213x150.jpg 213w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-597\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 8. Examination of the grave AT1\/57 at Ala-Tey 1.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Historical information about the social structure of Xiongnu society is known in the first instance from Chinese written sources. An important supplement to them is the material from archaeological excavations on the territory occupied by Xiongnu culture, in the first instance both the elite tombs and the unlooted ordinary burials. A number of the assertions of the Chinese historiographers about Xiongnu culture have already been confirmed by the excavations of the prominent burial complexes of the Xiongnu elite in Mongolia\u2014at Noyon Uul (Rudenko 1962: 6-10; Kozlov 1925: 11-15; Polos\u2019mak and Bogdanov 2015, 2016), Gol-Mod (Miller et al. 2006), and in Transbaikalia (Konovalov 2008; Miniaev and Sakharovskaia 2007; Nikolaev and Miniaev 2017). The same holds true for the excavations of the Xiongnu elite at the Bay-Dag 2 cemetery in Central Tuva (Mandel\u2019shtam and Stambul\u2019nik 1992: 197-98). Efforts have been made to analyze the social structure of the Xiongnu on the basis of the archaeological finds in Transbaikalia (Kradin 2001: 171-81; Kradin, Danilov, and Konovalov 2004: 81-85; Miniaev 2007: 77-80; Brosseder 2007), but all the authors emphasize the insufficiency of evidence for definite conclusions.<\/p>\n<p>The database for this kind of study is regularly supplemented by new finds both from the regions of the historical occupation by the Xiongnu as well as on the periphery of their state, which encompasses, inter alia, the territory of Tuva. Thanks to the fact that the cemeteries of Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin were undisturbed by looters, all the materials obtained from their study can be brought to bear for the reconstruction of the social portrait of the population which left them, something that is impossible or only partly possible in most of the other cases.<\/p>\n<p>The excavations of the cemeteries continue, and a complete picture will be obtained only after they have been completed [<strong>Fig. 9<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_598\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-598\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-598\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.9-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-598\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 9. The Ala-Tey 1 cemetery begins to be inundated by the Saian-Shushenskoe reservoir.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>But it is already possible to reach some preliminary conclusions about a range of questions regarding Xiongnu archaeology in Tuva, among them the interesting one regarding the social status of women. The majority of male burials in the Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin cemeteries seem to be rather poor in regard to the material objects they contain [<strong>Figs. 10<\/strong>, <strong>11<\/strong>], while at the same time a number of the female burials seem to be richer, in the first instance on account of the ornaments [<strong>Fig. 12<\/strong>] found in them, the composite belts with jet or bronze buckles, Chinese mirrors, etc. [<strong>Fig. 13<\/strong>]. The majority of the objects of the grave inventory of the female burials have no analogy in the male burials, with the exception of some common artifacts relating to the domestic economy such as ceramic vessels, iron knives, etc.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_599\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-599\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-599\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-300x165.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"165\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-300x165.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-768x422.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-1024x562.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-695x381.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.10-273x150.jpg 273w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-599\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 10. The male grave AT1\/46, with a horse skull, in a wooden coffin with stone siding.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_600\" style=\"width: 234px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-600\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-600\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-224x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"224\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-224x300.jpg 224w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-768x1030.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-764x1024.jpg 764w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-695x932.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.11-112x150.jpg 112w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 224px) 100vw, 224px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-600\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 11. The male burial of an archer AT1\/96 in a stone cist.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_601\" style=\"width: 307px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-601\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-601\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-297x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"297\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-297x300.jpg 297w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-768x775.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-1015x1024.jpg 1015w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-695x701.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.12-149x150.jpg 149w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 297px) 100vw, 297px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-601\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 12. A gold earring from female grave AT1\/21. All artifact photos by Tuvan Archaeological Expedition, Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_602\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-602\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-602\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.13-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-602\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 13. Female grave AT1\/11 with a Chinese mirror and bronze buckle.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_603\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-603\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-603\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.14-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-603\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 14. Female gravel AT1\/42 with a bronze buckle depicting horses.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Without question, the chief element of the female burial array is the belt, whose central detail in many cases is a large openwork buckle or belt plaque made of bronze with zoomorphic and geometric ornament [<strong>Fig. 14<\/strong>] or a belt plaque of jet, decorated with engravings or inlays of semiprecious stones [<strong>Fig. 15<\/strong>]. Also found are engraved bone buckle-plaques. The belts themselves, whose main material was leather or textile, were decorated around the edges with open-work appliqu\u00e9s of bronze, large and small bronze rings or stone disks, cowrie shells (or frequently their bronze imitations), bronze Chinese coins [<strong>Fig. 16<\/strong>], small bells [<strong>Fig. 17<\/strong>], and pendants of various materials [<strong>Fig. 18<\/strong>], sewn with beaded ornament. In every case, the belts were found <em>in situ<\/em> in the vicinity of the waist\u2014that is they were worn and were definitely a part of the burial attire. In some Xiongnu cemeteries in Transbaikalia (Miniaev 2007, pls. 36, 90) or in northern China (Kost 2014: pls. 97, 99-100), analogous buckles sometimes are found at the feet or alongside the interred\u2014i.e., the belt was not worn there but placed in the grave as a separate item of the burial inventory.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_604\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-604\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-604\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-300x281.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"281\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-300x281.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-768x718.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-1024x958.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-695x650.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.15-160x150.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-604\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 15. Female grave AT1\/29 with a large jet buckle.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_605\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-605\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-605\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-300x294.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-300x294.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-768x753.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-1024x1004.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-695x681.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.16-153x150.jpg 153w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-605\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 16. A Chinese wuzhu \u4e94\u9296 coin from the female grave AT1\/29.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_606\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-606\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-606\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-300x211.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"211\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-768x541.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-1024x722.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-695x490.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.17-213x150.jpg 213w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-606\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 17. A small bronze Chinese bell from a girl\u2019s grave AT1\/91.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_607\" style=\"width: 204px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.18.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-607\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-607\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.18-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"194\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.18-194x300.jpg 194w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.18-97x150.jpg 97w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.18.jpg 552w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 194px) 100vw, 194px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-607\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 18. A polychrome glass pendant from female grave T\/9.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Belts with large plaque-buckles were most probably part of female ceremonial dress, possibly initially bridal, and subsequently worn only on special festive occasions and thus accompanying the owner into the world beyond the grave. The buckles made of jet, for example, are less sturdy than those made of bronze or bone; their frequent use quickly resulted in damage, which generally could not be repaired. Evidence of this is in the finds of pieces of such buckles, both in burials and in Xiongnu settlements. The jet buckles from Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin nonetheless show signs of wear.<\/p>\n<p>We will briefly describe all of the types of large belt buckles found to date in the cemeteries of Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin:<\/p>\n<p>1. A large bronze belt buckle depicting a bull\/yak in full frontal view (from AT1\/23, skeleton No. 1) [<strong>Fig. 19<\/strong>]. There are no exact analogies, but similar buckles with bulls are known from the Ordos region (Kost 2014: pl. 6).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_608\" style=\"width: 239px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-608\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-608\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-229x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"229\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-768x1008.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-780x1024.jpg 780w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-695x912.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.19-114x150.jpg 114w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 229px) 100vw, 229px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-608\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 19. A bronze openwork buckle depicting a bull from grave AT1\/23.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>2. A rectangular bronze buckle depicting combat between two tigers and a dragon (from T\/12) [<strong>Fig. 20<\/strong>]. Analogous bronze buckles are known, both from Xiongnu burials in Transbaikalia and from private collections (most likely originating in Mongolia and Northern China). One private collection contains a unique example made of dark gray-green nephrite (Rawson 1995: 311-12).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_609\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-609\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-609\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-300x178.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"178\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-300x178.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-768x455.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-1024x606.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-695x411.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.20-253x150.jpg 253w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-609\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 20. A bronze openwork buckle from grave T\/12.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>3. A rectangular bronze buckle depicting four writhing snakes [<strong>Fig. 21<\/strong>]. Two examples were found (T\/1, AT1\/43). Analogous buckles and their fragments are known from the monuments of the Tes\u2019 Culture in the Minusinsk Basin (Devlet 1980: 24, pls. 13, 14) and in Xiongnu burials in Transbaikalia (Davydova and Miniaev 2008: 98).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_610\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-610\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-610\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-768x509.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-1024x678.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-695x460.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.21-226x150.jpg 226w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-610\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 21. A bronze openwork buckle depicting snakes, from grave AT1\/43.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>4. A bronze buckle with geometric ornament which forms a stepped lattice, decorated on the edges with the depiction of six animal heads [<strong>Fig. 22<\/strong>]. Two examples were found in the Terezin cemetery (T\/5 and a chance find from a destroyed burial). Analogies are known from the Minusinsk Basin and in chance finds (Devlet 1980: pls. 16-17).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_611\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-611\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-611\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-300x204.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"204\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-768x522.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-1024x696.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-695x472.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.22-221x150.jpg 221w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-611\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 22. A bronze openwork buckle with latticework ornament and animal heads, from grave T\/5.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>5. A bronze buckle with geometric ornament which forms a stepped lattice [<strong>Fig. 23<\/strong>], similar to the preceding, but lacking the animal heads (AT1\/2). Analogies are known from the Minusinsk Basin in chance finds and from the materials of the Tes\u2019 graves (Devlet 1980: 16-17; Kuz\u2019min 2011: 196). In the Terezin cemetery were five similar small appliqu\u00e9s, belt decorations in a rich female burial (T\/31), where the large central buckle depicted horses in combat.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_613\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-613\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-613\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-300x196.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"196\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-300x196.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-768x502.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-1024x669.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-695x454.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.23-230x150.jpg 230w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-613\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 23. A bronze openwork buckle with latticework ornament, from grave AT1\/2.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>6. A rectangular buckle depicting two confronted standing bulls\/yaks [<strong>Fig. 24<\/strong>], their heads facing the viewer.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_614\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-614\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-614\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-695x463.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.24-225x150.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-614\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 24. A bronze openwork buckle depicting two bulls or yaks, from grave T\/13.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Seven examples were found (T\/13, T\/14, AT1\/11, AT1\/19, AT1\/48, AT1\/50, AT1\/64). They all vary in measurements and likely were cast in different molds. Analogies have been found especially in the Minusinsk\u00a0Basin, the provenance of several intact buckles and fragments (altogether 19 examples), most from chance finds but some from excavated burials (Devlet 1980: 20-21; pls. 1-6). One buckle was found in a burial dated to the early Han (2nd-1st centuries BCE) in Manchuria (Kost 2014: 221, pl. 17), and several chance finds probably are from the territory of Inner Mongolia (Brosseder 2011: 372, 419; Rawson and Bunker 1990: cat. no. 222). It is possible that this subject was the basis for the depictions on two small appliqu\u00e9s from the eroded burial T\/5, showing two front-facing bulls\/yaks [<strong>Fig. 25<\/strong>], decorations for a belt that had a large buckle plaque with geometric ornament and six animal heads.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_615\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-615\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-615\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-300x235.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"235\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-300x235.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-768x601.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-1024x802.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-695x544.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.25-192x150.jpg 192w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-615\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 25. A bronze openwork plaque depicting two bulls, from grave T\/5.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>7. A bronze buckle depicting two confronted camels [<strong>Fig. 26<\/strong>] (from AT1\/21). Several random finds of analogous buckles come from northern China; half of such a buckle was found in the excavations of the cemetery at Daodunzi (Devlet 1980: Fig. 2.2; Kost 2014: pl. 23).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_616\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-616\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-616\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-300x189.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"189\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-300x189.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-768x484.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-1024x645.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-695x438.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.26-238x150.jpg 238w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-616\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 26. A bronze openwork buckle depicting two camels, from grave AT1\/21.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8. A fragment of a bronze buckle depicting a horse [<strong>Fig. 27<\/strong>] in recumbent position, legs drawn under it (AT1\/23, skeleton No. 2). It was on a belt along with unidentifiable fragments of another buckle. Several similar buckles with a single horse whose legs are drawn under it are known from chance finds in Northern China (Wagner and Butz 2007: 2-3). One example comes from the Daodunzi Cemetery (Kost 2014: pls. 7, 8).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_617\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-617\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-617\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-300x258.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"258\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-300x258.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-768x660.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-1024x880.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-695x597.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.27-175x150.jpg 175w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-617\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 27. A fragmentary bronze openwork buckle depicting a horse, from grave AT1\/23.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>9. A bronze buckle depicting two horses or Przewalski horses in combat, biting each other [<strong>Fig. 28<\/strong>]. Two examples were found (AT1\/42; T\/31). Analogies are known from the Minusinsk Basin, Transbaikalia and China (Miniaev 2007: pls. 1, 3, 84, 88, 91; Kost 2014: 116-17; pls. 43, 44; Brosseder 2011: 364-370, 417). In one of the burials at Terezin (T\/19) that had been eroded by water was a small appliqu\u00e9 with the same subject, apparently part of a collection of several similar appliqu\u00e9s which had decorated a woman\u2019s belt.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_618\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-618\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-618\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-768x509.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-1024x678.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-695x460.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.28-226x150.jpg 226w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-618\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 28. A bronze openwork buckle depicting two horses in combat, from grave AT1\/42.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>10. A paired bronze buckle depicting two fantastic creatures [<strong>Fig. 29<\/strong>] resembling dragons with braided tails, horns, and goat snouts (AT1\/47). Analogous examples are known mainly from northern China (Kost 2014: 113-14; pls. 32-33).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_619\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-619\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-619\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-768x509.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-1024x678.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-695x460.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.29-226x150.jpg 226w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-619\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 29. A bronze openwork buckle (one of a pair) depicting two dragon-like creatures or Siberian ibex, from grave AT 1\/47.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Jet belt buckle plaques and appliqu\u00e9s previously had not been found in Tuva [<strong>Fig. 30<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_620\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-620\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-620\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-300x134.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"134\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-300x134.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-768x344.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-1024x458.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-695x311.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.30-335x150.jpg 335w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-620\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 30. A female grave with a jet buckle, AT1\/35.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In the Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin cemeteries, large jet buckle plaques were found in five graves (AT1\/29, 35, 86, T\/21, T\/23). The plaque from AT1\/29 measures 18 x 9 cm [<strong>Fig. 31<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_621\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-621\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-621\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-300x187.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"187\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-300x187.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-768x480.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-1024x640.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-695x434.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.31-240x150.jpg 240w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-621\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 31. A large jet buckle with inlay, from grave AT1\/29.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>It is decorated with a dot pattern, the indentations with color inlay of turquoise, carnelian, and mother-of-pearl. The buckles from AT1\/35 [<strong>Fig. 32<\/strong>] and T\/23 are decorated in the same style.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_622\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-622\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-622\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-300x271.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"271\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-300x271.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-768x693.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-1024x925.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-695x627.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.32-166x150.jpg 166w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-622\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 32. A large jet buckle with inlay, from grave AT1\/35.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>On the short sides of the buckle are openings: on one side there are two round holes for securing the buckle to the belt; on the other a single, oval one, likely for the fastening of the buckle. In grave AT1\/86 an aged woman had a complete composite jet belt [<strong>Fig. 33<\/strong>]\u2014a large buckle plaque, rectangular appliqu\u00e9s, and a substantial ring.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_623\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-623\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-623\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-300x146.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"146\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-300x146.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-768x374.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-1024x499.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-695x339.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33-308x150.jpg 308w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.33.jpg 1906w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-623\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 33. The burial of an elderly woman whose belt comprised jet decorations, grave AT1\/86.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>On the buckle was an interesting engraving depicting two walking mountain goats, with arrows falling on them. On the right are a bow and arrow, suggesting the presence of a bowman. Above one of the goats is an image of a horse lying upside down and with a twisted croup. In this way, elements of the Scythian animal style were combined with the Xiongnu pictorial tradition [<strong>Fig. 34<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_624\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-624\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-624\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-300x204.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"204\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-768x523.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-1024x698.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-695x474.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.34-220x150.jpg 220w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-624\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 34. A large engraved jet buckle from grave AT1\/86.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>On the belt of a young woman from grave T\/21 was a jet buckle plaque engraved with a <em>tamgha<\/em>-like symbol resembling an hour-glass or <em>Wu<\/em> symbol as seen in Chinese <em>Wu Zhu<\/em> \u4e94\u9296 coins. A jar-shaped vessel set in that grave is analogous to one from grave AT1\/86.<\/p>\n<p>The small belt appliqu\u00e9s measure 4-5 x 2.5-3 cm. On both short sides of the plaques are holes for attaching them to the belt. One of the appliqu\u00e9s (AT1\/12) was decorated with an X-shaped dot design, in whose indentations were color inlays [<strong>Fig. 35<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_625\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-625\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-625\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-300x202.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"202\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-300x202.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-768x517.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-1024x689.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-695x468.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.35-223x150.jpg 223w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-625\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 35. A small jet belt plaque with inlay, from grave AT1\/12.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Similar items, among them ones with both identical and different inlays, are known in Xiongnu-era archaeological monuments in Transbaikalia\u2014in the Ivolga cemetery (Davydova 1996: 20-21) and in the settlement (Davydova 1995: 39), in the Dyrestui cemetery and the Dureny settlement (Davydova and Miniaev 2008, figs. 34, 87-89), and in Il\u2019movaia pad\u2019 barrow No. 54 (Konovalov 2008: Figs. 48, 49). Large plaques with such ornaments have been found in Central Asia (Brosseder 2011: 361; Raev 2017). Several examples have been found in the Tes\u2019 Culture graves in the Minusinsk Basin (Kuz\u2019min 2011: 197, 352, pl. 41; fig. 41). Other examples come from Mongolia (<em>Treasures<\/em> 2011: 134-35).<\/p>\n<p>Chinese bronze mirrors have been found so far exclusively in the female burials and usually are placed on the left or right of the breast, sometimes next to the shoulder or skull. For example, in grave T\/21 a mirror lay to the right of the head in a special pouch or wooden box. The majority of the mirrors are examples dating to the Western Han period (2nd-1st centuries BCE), and for the most part these are not even original Chinese mirrors [<strong>Fig. 36<\/strong>] but rather their local copies [<strong>Fig. 37<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_626\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-626\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-626\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-300x193.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"193\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-300x193.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-768x493.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-1024x657.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-695x446.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36-234x150.jpg 234w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.36.jpg 1980w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-626\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 36. A fragment of a Chinese mirror, chance find at Terezin.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_627\" style=\"width: 305px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-627\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-627\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-295x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"295\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-295x300.jpg 295w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-768x780.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-1008x1024.jpg 1008w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-695x706.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.37-148x150.jpg 148w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 295px) 100vw, 295px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-627\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 37. A copy of a Chinese mirror with Chinese inscription, from grave AT1\/25.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>In four instances mirrors were found which date to the pre-Han period in China [<strong>Figs. 38-39<\/strong>], i.e., to the end of the Warring States Period, which in Tuva corresponds to the late Scythian period.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_628\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-628\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-628\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-300x252.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"252\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-300x252.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-768x644.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-1024x859.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-695x583.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.38-179x150.jpg 179w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-628\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 38. A fragment of a Chinese mirror, from grave AT1\/2.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_629\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-629\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-629\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-300x291.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"291\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-300x291.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-768x746.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-1024x995.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-695x675.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.39-154x150.jpg 154w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-629\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 39. A fragment of a Chinese mirror, from grave AT1\/31.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>For the most part, mirrors were found in rich burials with the openwork buckles, but occasionally in a grave with a rich composite belt there is no mirror. An important detail for the chronology of the monuments is the absence here of mirrors from the Eastern Han period (i.e., the 1st-2nd centuries CE), among them the widely distributed TLV mirrors.<\/p>\n<p>The male belts usually involved round or rectangular-framed iron buckles, some rather large, and also iron rings. A characteristic feature of a male belt also is the bronze spoon-like strap tip [<strong>Fig. 40<\/strong>], which is not found in female burials.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_630\" style=\"width: 243px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-630\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-630\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-233x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"233\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-233x300.jpg 233w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-768x988.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-796x1024.jpg 796w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-695x895.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.40-117x150.jpg 117w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 233px) 100vw, 233px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-630\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 40. A spoon-shaped strap tip from male burial AT1\/49.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>While it may seem unusual, in male burials there are practically no weapons\u2014in Terezin there were only two instances of burials of archers, which contained bone strengtheners for complex bows and arrowheads; at Ala-Tey, five graves contained bows and only one of them arrowheads.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_631\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-631\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-631\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.41-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-631\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 41. Xiongnu ceramics from the Ala-Tey 1 cemetery.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The basic types of ceramic vessels\u2014a single shallow vessel or one paired with a jar-shaped vessel\u2014were found in all the burials: male, female, and child [<strong>Fig. 41<\/strong>]. The same was true of a type of ceramic vessel that is unique to the region, and which was found for the first time in the Ala-Tey 1 cemetery\u2014these are small vessels with an internal partition at whose base usually is a round hole [<strong>Figs. 42-43<\/strong>]. All of them were discovered at the level of the ancient surface, in the center or at the edge of the grave pit. They have various shapes\u2014square, round, oval or rectangular. One may surmise that these were lamps, lighted over the grave or around its periphery at the conclusion of or subsequent to the funeral ceremony.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_632\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-632\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-632\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-300x294.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-300x294.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-768x753.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-1024x1003.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-695x681.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42-153x150.jpg 153w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.42.jpg 1586w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-632\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 42. Two ceramic vessels with a partition from grave AT1\/72.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_633\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-633\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-633\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-695x463.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Pic.43-225x150.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-633\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 43. A ceramic vessel\/lamp with a partition, from the Ala-Tey 1 cemetery.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>There was no correlation between particular types of grave structures in either cemetery or gender. Both male and female burials were in stone cists [<strong>Fig. 44<\/strong>], wooden coffins with stone siding [<strong>Fig. 45<\/strong>], and in simple earthen pits [<strong>Fig. 46<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_634\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-634\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-634\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-300x263.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"263\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-300x263.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-768x674.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-1024x899.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-695x610.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.44-171x150.jpg 171w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-634\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 44. The cover of stone cist AT1\/42.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_635\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-635\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-635\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-300x189.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"189\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-300x189.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-768x485.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-1024x646.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-695x439.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.45-238x150.jpg 238w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-635\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 45. Female grave AT1\/47 with a horse skull, in a wooden coffin with stone siding.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_636\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-636\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-636\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-300x96.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"96\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-300x96.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-768x246.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-1024x329.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-695x223.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.46-467x150.jpg 467w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-636\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 46. Simple pit burials: male grave AT1\/49 (on the left) and female grave AT1\/50 on the right.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The depth of the graves also varied from literally 30 cm to 2 m. Male, female, and child burials were found with the body on the side or supine with flexed or extended legs. However, in the Ala-Tey 1 cemetery, the majority of the bodies were extended and supine (more than 90%), whereas in Terezin they had flexed legs [<strong>Figs. 47-48<\/strong>].<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_637\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-637\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-637\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-768x575.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-1024x767.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.47-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-637\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 47. A double female burial in a stone cist, AT1\/23.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_638\" style=\"width: 207px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-638\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-638\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-197x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"197\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-197x300.jpg 197w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-768x1167.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-674x1024.jpg 674w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-695x1056.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.48-99x150.jpg 99w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 197px) 100vw, 197px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-638\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 48. Female burial T\/31 in a wooden structure in a stone enclosure.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>A distinctive feature of the extended male and female burials at Ala-Tey was the position of the arms: for the men, extended down along the body, but for the women, bent at the elbows [<strong>Fig. 49<\/strong>] and lying on the waist or folded on the breast, with some cases where one arm was at the waist and the second bent to the breast or shoulder.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_639\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-639\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-639\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-695x521.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.49-200x150.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-639\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 49. Detail of a belt in the female burial T\/31.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Thus, in Tuva, the arrival of the Xiongnu or some tribe related to them culturally is reflected in the replacement of the Scythian-type Uyuk-Saglyn Culture by the Ulug-Khem Archaeological Culture. As a result, the characteristic Scythian-period features, such as collective burials in wooden chambers and the material culture associated with them, disappear. Mortuary monuments of different types appear: ordinary subterranean burials in stone cists, in wooden coffins or frames, simple earthen pit burials, and also large elite barrows with dromoses. The majority of the bodies are extended supine ones, though sometimes they are in the flexed position. The material culture corresponds entirely to that of the Xiongnu, including the most prominent examples of decorative applied arts, weaponry, ceramics, d\u00e9cor, and Chinese imports.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_640\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-640\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-640\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-300x222.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"222\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-300x222.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-768x568.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-1024x757.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-695x514.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/pic.50-203x150.jpg 203w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-640\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 50. A rich burial of a girl, AT1\/91, in a wooden coffin (?) with stone siding.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Also very indicative are the changes in the distribution of grave inventory by gender. If in Scythian times in Tuva the more valuable objects were usually found in male burials, then in the Ulug-Khem Culture, they are in female burials. This could be evidence about the higher status of women in Xiongnu society than in the preceding Scythian society. However, the richer grave inventory of female burials might merely attest to the more beautiful ceremonial attire of women, which was natural for most nomadic and sedentary societies in Eurasia. Here, in all likelihood, an important role was played as well by the social position of buried women in their society: whether or not they were married, came from a rich, influential family or from a poor one, etc. Both cemeteries include rich and poor female burials. The same is true of the children\u2019s graves\u2014some have modest burial inventory, but some relatively rich [<strong>Fig. 50<\/strong>], including various kinds of ceramic vessels, beads, and other ornaments, along with Chinese pendant bells, etc., which are also typical for the female burials. Nonetheless, it is as yet premature to reach a final conclusion about such matters.<\/p>\n<p>Who were the people buried at Ala-Tey and Terezin? So far one might propose that this was some group of nomads who were part of the multi-ethnic Xiongnu confederation and who had entered Tuva during their expansion to the north. Until then they might have lived somewhere on the northern borders of China, where they could obtain Chinese wares such as mirrors, coins, ornaments, etc.; after that they set off on the long march which brought them to Tuva. Once there, no longer having access to original Chinese objects, they had to copy them on their own: the majority of copies of the Chinese mirrors and openwork buckles are made of bronze, which was of local origin, as metallurgical analysis has demonstrated (Khavrin 2011; 2016). The time when these people headed into Tuva so far seems to have been the beginning of the Western Han period, i.e., the 2nd century BCE. Evidence for this includes the Chinese mirrors from precisely that period or even the preceding one and the absence of later examples. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating of some burials at Ala-Tey and Terezin also points to the 2nd-1st centuries BCE.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, that was precisely the time of the northern campaigns of the Xiongnu into the Sayan-Altai and the subsequent inclusion of that region into the sphere of their cultural influence. It is no surprise that in the North, the very location of the main mass of known archaeological monuments of the Xiongnu epoch is precisely in Central Tuva, in the geopolitically important place where Yenisei enters the Sayan canyon, the historic route from there northwards into the Minusinsk Basin. The people who arrived there could have been a military force or loyal settlers, who replaced the local Scythian population and assimilated its remnants. The burials with extended legs found in both cemeteries could be connected with Scythian mortuary traditions. A more precise answer to the question of this population\u2019s origin may come from the results of palaeogenetic analysis.<\/p>\n<p>The plan is to continue the excavations in the Ala-Tey 1 and Terezin cemeteries in 2019. New discoveries await the archaeologists, discoveries which will help better to understand the historical processes occurring at that time in Inner Asia.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: right\"><em>&#8211; translated by Daniel C. Waugh<\/em><\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Authors<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Marina Kilunovskaya<\/strong> is Senior Researcher in the Department of Archaeology of Central Asia and the Caucasus at the Institute for the History of Material Culture in the Russian Academy of Sciences. She has been conducting excavations in Tuva since 1980. In recent years, she has headed the Tuva Archaeological Expedition of the Institute for the History of Material Culture. She is the author of many scientific publications on the archaeology and rock art of Tuva, Central Asia, and South Siberia. Her research interests include the study of the Bronze Age and Scythian era, rock art, and deer stones. E-mail: &lt;kilunmar@mail.ru&gt;.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pavel Leus<\/strong> is a member of the Tuva Archaeological Expedition organized by the Institute for the History of Material Culture in the Russian Academy of Sciences. He has worked on excavations in Tuva since 1991, including the last twelve years on Xiongnu-era burial grounds near the Sayan-Shushenskoe reservoir. He is the author of numerous publications on the archaeology and ethnography of Tuva and Central Asia. His research interests include the Xiongnu and Scythian eras, ancient Turkic peoples, and the ethnography of Central Asia and South Siberia. E-mail: &lt;leuss@web.de&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">References<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Brosseder 2007<br \/>\n<\/strong>Ursula Brosseder. \u201cFremde Frauen in Ivolga?\u201d In: M. 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T. 1. <em>Ivolginskoe gorodishche\u00a0<\/em>[The Ivolga Archaeological Complex. Vol. 1. The Ivolga Hillfort]. Sankt-Peterburg, 1995.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Davydova 1996<br \/>\n<\/strong>Antonina Vladimirovna Davydova. <em>Ivolginskii arkheologicheskii kompleks<\/em>. T. 2. <em>Ivolginskii mogil\u2019nik\u00a0<\/em>[The Ivolga Archaeological Complex. Vol. 2. The Ivolga Cemetery]. Sankt-Peterburg, 1996.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Davydova and Miniaev 1993<br \/>\n<\/strong>Antonina Vladimirovna Davydova and Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev. \u201cNovye nakhodki nabornykh poiasov v Dyrestuiskom mogil\u2019nike [New discoveries of composite belts in the Dyrestui cemetery]. <em>Arkheologicheskie vesti\u00a0<\/em>2 (1993): 55-65.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Davydova and Miniaev 2008<br \/>\n<\/strong>Antonina Vladimirovna Davydova and Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev.<em>The Xiongnu Artistic Bronzes: New Discoveries in Russia<\/em>\/ <em>Khudozhestvennaia bronza siunnu<\/em>; <em>Novye otkrytiia v Rossii<\/em>. Sankt-Peterburg, 2008.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Devlet 1980<br \/>\n<\/strong>Marianna Artashirovna Devlet. <em>Sibirskie poiasnye azhurnye plastiny II v. do n.e-I v. n.e.\u00a0<\/em>[Siberian openwork belt plaques, 2nd century BCE-1st century CE]. Svod arkheologicheskikh istochnikov, Vyp. D 4-07. Moskva, 1980.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Grach 1971<br \/>\n<\/strong>Aleksandr Danilovich Grach. \u201cNovye dannye o drevnei istorii Tuvy [New data on the ancient history of Tuva].\u201d <em>Uchenye zapiski Tuvinskogo nauchno-issledovatel\u2019skogo instituta iazyka, literatury i istorii <\/em>(Kizyl) 15 (1971): 93-106.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Griaznov 1980<br \/>\n<\/strong>Mikhail Petrovich Griaznov. <em>Arzhan. Tsarskii kurgan ranneskifskogo vremeni<\/em>. [Arzhan: a royal barrow of the early Scythian period]. Leningrad, 1980.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Khavrin 2011<br \/>\n<\/strong>Sergei Vladimirovich Khavrin. \u201cMetal of the Xiongnu Period from the Terezin Cemetery, Tuva.\u201d In: Ursula Brosseder and Bryan Miller, eds., <em>Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia<\/em>. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology. Vol. 5. Bonn, 2011: 537-38.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Khavrin 2016<br \/>\n<\/strong>Sergei Vladimirovich Khavrin. \u201cMetall epokhi khunnu mogil\u2019nika Terezin I (Tuva) [Metal of the Xiongnu period of the Terezin I (Tuva) cemetery]\u201d [Appendix to Leus and Bel\u2019skii 2016]. <em>Arkheologicheskie vesti\u00a0<\/em>22 (2016): 105-7.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kilunovskaia and Leus 2017a<br \/>\n<\/strong>Marina Evgen\u2019evna Kilunovskaia and Pavel Mikhailovich Leus. \u201cIskusstvo kontsa pervogo tysiacheletiia do n. e. v Tuve\u201d [Art of the end of the first millennium BCE in Tuva]. <em>Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii<\/em>, Vyp. 247 (2017a): 87-104.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kilunovskaia and Leus 2017b<br \/>\n<\/strong>Marina Evgen\u2019evna Kilunovskaia and Pavel Mikhailovich Leus. \u201cMogil\u2019nik Ala-Tei i pamiatniki khunnu v Tve\u201d [The Ala-Tei cemetery and Xiongnu monuments in Tuva]. In: D. G. Savinov, ed., <em>Rannii zheleznyi vek ot rubezha er do serediny I tys. n.e. Dinamika osvoeniia kul\u2019turnogo prostranstva. Materialy IV nauchnoi konferentsii \u201cArkheologicheskie istochniki i kul\u2019turogenez,\u201d 14-18 noiabria 2017 g.<\/em>Sankt-Peterburg, 2017b: 72-75.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Konovalov 2008<br \/>\n<\/strong>Prokopii Batiurovich Konovalov. <em>Usypal\u2019nitsa khunnskogo kniazia v Sudzhi. (Il\u2019movaia pad\u2019, Zabaikal\u2019e)<\/em>. Ulan-Ude, 2008. Also in English: <em>The Burial Vault of a Xiongnu Prince at Sudzha (Il\u2019movaia pad\u2019, Transbaikalia)<\/em>. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology. Vol. 3. Bonn, 2008.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kost 2014<br \/>\n<\/strong>Catrin Kost. <em>The Practice of Imagery in the Northern Chinese Steppe (5th-1st centuries BCE)<\/em>. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology. Vol. 6. Bonn, 2014.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kovalev 2011<br \/>\n<\/strong>Aleksei Anatol\u2019evich Kovalev. \u201cImperator Kitaia v khakasskoi stepi [\u0410 Chinese emperor in the Khakass steppe].\u201d\u00a0<em>Khunnu: arkheologiia, proiskhozhdenie kul\u2019tury, etnicheskie osobennosti<\/em>. Ulan-Ude, 2011: 77-114.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kozlov 1925<br \/>\n<\/strong>Petr Kuz\u2019mich Kozlov. \u201cSevernaia Mongoliia\u2014Noin-ulinskie pamiatniki [Northern Mongolia\u2014the Noyon Uul monuments].\u201d In: <em>Kratkie otchety ekspeditsii po issledovaniiu Severnoi Mongolii v sviazi s Mongol\u2019sko-Tibetskoi ekspeditsiei P. K. Kozlova<\/em>. Leningrad, 1925: 1-12.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kradin 2001<br \/>\n<\/strong>Nikolai Nikolaevich Kradin. <em>Imperiia Khunnu\u00a0<\/em>[The Xiongnu empire].\u00a0 Moskva, 2001.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kradin, Danilov, and Konovalov 2004<br \/>\n<\/strong>Nikolai Nikolaevich Kradin, Sergei Vladimirovich Danilov, and Prokopii Batiurovich Konovalov. <em>Sotsial\u2019naia struktura khunnov Zabaikal\u2019ia\u00a0<\/em>[The social structure of the Transbaikal Xiongnu]. Vladivostok, 2004.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kuz\u2019min 2011<br \/>\n<\/strong>Nikolai Iur\u2019evich Kuz\u2019min. <em>Pogrebal\u2019nye pamiatniki khunno-sian\u2019biiskogo vremeni v stepiakh Srednego Eniseia: Tesinskaia kul\u2019tura\u00a0<\/em>[Mortuary monuments of the Xiongnu-Xianbei period in the steppes of the Middle Yenisei: the Tes\u2019 culture]. Sankt-Peterburg, 2011.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kyzlasov 1969<br \/>\n<\/strong>Leonid Romanovich Kyzlasov. \u201cO pamiatnikakh rannikh gunnov\u201d [On the monuments of the ancient Xiongnu]. <em>Drevnosti Vostochnoi Evropy<\/em>. Moskva, 1969: 115-24.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kyzlasov 2001<br \/>\n<\/strong>Leonid Romanovich Kyzlasov. <em>Gunnskii dvorets na Enisee:<\/em><em>Problema rannei gosudarstvennosti Iuzhnoi Sibiri<\/em>. [A Xiongnu palace on the Yenisei: the problem of early statehood in southern Siberia]. Moskva, 2001.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Leus 2011<br \/>\n<\/strong>Pavel Mikhailovich Leus. \u201cNew Finds from the Xiongnu Period in Central Tuva. Preliminary Communication.\u201d In: Ursula Brosseder and Bryan Miller, eds., <em>Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia<\/em>. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology. Vol. 5. Bonn, 2011: 515-36.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Leus 2017<br \/>\n<\/strong>Pavel Mikhailovich Leus. \u201cRadiouglerodnye daty iz khunnskikh mogil\u2019nikov Ala-Tei i Terezin v Tuve\u201d [Radio-Carbon dates from the Xiongnu cemeteries of Ala-Tei and Terezin in Tuva]. In: A. S. Vdovin and N. P. Makarov, eds., <em>Mezhdistsiplinarnye issledovaniia v arkheologii, etnografii i istorii Sibiri<\/em>. <em>Materialy mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii Krasnoiarsk, 27-30 sentiabria 2017 g.<\/em>, Krasnoiarsk, 2017: 181-84.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Leus and Bel\u2019skii 2016<br \/>\n<\/strong>Pavel Mikhailovich Leus and Stanislav Viktorovich Bel\u2019skii. \u201cTerezin I\u2014mogil\u2019nik epokhy Khunnu v Tsentral\u2019noi Tuve\u201d [Terezin I\u2014a cemetery of the Xiongnu era in central Tuva]. <em>Arkheologicheskie vesti\u00a0<\/em>22 (2016): 93-104.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mandel\u2019shtam and Stambul\u2019nik 1992<br \/>\n<\/strong>Anatolii Maksimilianovich Mandel\u2019shtam and El\u2019vira Ustinovna Stambul\u2019nik. \u201cGunno-Sarmatskii period na territorii Tuvy\u201d [The Xiongnu-Sarmatian period on the territory of Tuva]. In: M. G. Moshkova, ed., <em>Stepnaia polosa Aziatskoi chasti SSSR v skifo-sarmatskoe vremia<\/em>, Moskva, 1992: 196-205.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Miller et al. 2006<br \/>\n<\/strong>Bryan Miller, Francis Allard, Diimaazhav Erdenebaatar, and Christine Lee. \u201cA Xiongnu Tomb Complex: Excavations at Gol Mod 2 Cemetery, Mongolia (2002-2005).\u201d <em>Mongolian Journal of Archaeology, Anthropology and Ethnology\u00a0<\/em>2\/2 (271) (2006): 1-21.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Miniaev 2007<br \/>\n<\/strong>Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev. <em>Dyrestuiskii mogol\u2019nik\u00a0<\/em>[The Dyrestui cemetery]. 2-e izd., dop. Arkheologicheksie pamiatniki siunnu. Vyp. 3. Sankt-Peterburg, 2007 (1st ed., 1998).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Miniaev and Sakharovskaia 2007<br \/>\n<\/strong>Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev and Lidiia Mikhailovna Sakharovskaia. \u201cElitnyi kompleks zakhoronenii khunnu v padi Tsaram\u201d [An elite Xioungnu burial complex in the Tsaram Valley]. <em>Rossiiskaia arkheologiia\u00a0<\/em>2007\/1: 159-66.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Nikolaev and Miniaev 2017<br \/>\n<\/strong>Nikolai Nikolaevich Nikolaev and Sergei Stepanovich Miniaev. \u201cRaboty Tsentral\u2019no-Aziatskoi arkheologicheskoi ekspeditsii na mogil\u2019nike Orgoiton [Work of the Inner Asian Archaeological Expedition at the Orgoiton cemetery].\u201d <em>Arkheologicheskii sbornik <\/em>41<em>. Materialy i issledovaniia po arkheologii Evrazii<\/em>. Sankt-Peterburg, 2017: 143-58.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Polos\u2019mak and Bogdanov 2015<br \/>\n<\/strong>Natal\u2019ia Viktorovna Polos\u2019mak and Evgenii Sergeevich Bogdanov<em>. Kurgany Sutszukte (Noin-Ula, Mongoliia)\u00a0<\/em>[The S\u00fczhigt Barrows (Noyon Uul, Mongolia)]. Novosibirsk, 2015.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Polos\u2019mak and Bogdanov 2016<br \/>\n<\/strong>Natal\u2019ia Viktorovna Polos\u2019mak and Evgenii Sergeevich Bogdanov<em>.<\/em><em>Noin-Ulinskaia kollektsiia. Rezul\u2019taty rabot rossiisko-mongol\u2019skoi ekspeditsii 2006-2012 gg.\u00a0<\/em>[The Noyon Uul Collection. Results of the work of the Russo-Mongolian Expeditions 2006-2012]. Novosibirsk, 2016.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Raev 2017<br \/>\n<\/strong>Boris Aronovich Raev. \u201cGagatovye priazhki iz Zhutovskogo mogil\u2019nika. Arkheologicheskie priznai migratsii\u201d [Jet Buckles from the Zhutovskii Cemetery. Archaeological Signs of Migration]. In:\u00a0 L. B. Vishniatskii, ed., <em>Ex Ungue Leonem. Sbornik statei k 90-letiiu L\u2019va Samuilovicha Kleina<\/em>, Sankt-Peterburg, 2017: 291-305.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rawson 1995<br \/>\n<\/strong>Jessica Rawson. <em>Chinese Jade: From the Neolithic to the Qing<\/em>. London, 1995.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rawson and Bunker 1990<br \/>\n<\/strong>Jessica Rawson and Emma C. Bunker. <em>Ancient Chinese and Ordos Bronzes<\/em>. Hong Kong, 1990.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rudenko 1962<br \/>\n<\/strong>Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko. <em>Kul\u2019tura khunnov i noinulinskie kurgany\u00a0<\/em>[The culture of the Xiongnu and the Noyon Uul barrows]. Moskva-Leningrad, 1962.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Savinov 1969<br \/>\n<\/strong>Dmitrii Glebovich Savinov. \u201cPogrebenie s bronzovoi bliakhoi v Tsentral\u2019noi Tuve\u201d [A burial with a bronze plaque in central Tuva]. <em>Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii<\/em>, Vyp. 119 (1969): 104-8.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Savinov 2009<br \/>\n<\/strong>Dmitrii Glebovich Savinov. <em>Minusinskaia provintsiia Khunnu (Po materialam arkheologicheskikh issledovanii 1984-1989 gg.)<\/em>[The Minusinsk Province of the Xiongnu (from materials of the archaeological investigations of 1984-1989]. Sankt-Peterburg, 2009.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Stambul\u2019nik 1983<br \/>\n<\/strong>El\u2019vira Ustinovna Stambul\u2019nik. \u201cNovye pamiatniki gunno-sarmatskogo vremeni v Tuve (nekotorye itogi rabot)\u201d [New monuments of the Xiongnu-Sarmatian period in Tuva (some results of the work)]. In: V. M. Masson, ed., <em>Drevnie kul\u2019tury evraziiskikh stepei. Po materialam arkheologicheskikh rabot na novostroikakh<\/em>, Leningrad, 1983: 34-41.<\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Treasures\u00a0<\/em>2011<br \/>\n<\/strong><em>Treasures of the Xiongnu. Culture of Xiongnu, the First Nomadic Empire in Mongolia<\/em>\/ <em>Kh<\/em><em>\u00fcnn<\/em><em>\u00fcgiin <\/em><em>\u00f6v. N<\/em><em>\u00fc\u00fcdelchdiin ankhny t<\/em><em>\u00f6r\u2014Kh<\/em><em>\u00fcnn<\/em><em>\u00fcg<\/em><em>\u00fcrnii so<\/em><em>\u00ebl<\/em>. G. Eregzen, ed. Ulaanbaatar, 2011.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Wagner and Butz 2007<br \/>\n<\/strong>Mayke Wagner and Herbert Butz. <em>Nomadenkunst. Ordosbronzen der Ostasiatischen Kunstsammlung. Museum f<\/em><em>\u00fcr Asiatische Kunst, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.\u00a0<\/em>Arch\u00e4ologie in Eurasien 23. Mainz, 2007.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Endnotes<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><sup>1<\/sup> Reports on the several seasons of excavation in Tuva supported by the Society are available online: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.exploration-eurasia.com\/inhalt_english\/frameset_projekt_4.html\">http:\/\/www.exploration-eurasia.com\/inhalt_english\/frameset_projekt_4.html<\/a><br \/>\n<sup>2<\/sup> The abbreviations used here indicate the site (AT1 = Ala-Tey1; T = Terezin) and, following the forward slash (\/), the number of the grave.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 1\u201320.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Marina Kulinovskaya and Pavel Leus Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences &nbsp; Tuva (today, the Tyva Republic, part of the Russian Federation) is a land in the geographic center of Asia, surrounded by mountains and the taiga on the west, east, and north, and by the Mongolian steppes and deserts [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-641","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/641","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=641"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/641\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=641"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":587,"date":"2019-03-25T14:38:21","date_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:38:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=587"},"modified":"2019-03-25T14:41:14","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:41:14","slug":"v16_2018_bookreview_lopez","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_bookreview_lopez\/","title":{"rendered":"Book Review"},"content":{"rendered":"<h4>Donald S. Lopez, Jr. <em>Hyecho\u2019s Journey: The World of Buddhism<\/em>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017.<\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In Fall 2018, I was asked to teach an \u201cIntroduction to Asia\u201d course at my university for the first time. After taking a look at previous iterations of the course, I decided to eschew their reliance on the canonical texts that are often used to introduce the \u201cgreat traditions\u201d of Asia to undergraduate students. I did not want my students to leave the classroom with the idea that what Confucius said in <em>The Analects<\/em> or what an ancient Indo-Aryan composer said in the Rigveda was somehow representative of a timeless, enduring cultural trait of today\u2019s China or India. But if an \u201cIntroduction to Asia\u201d course is not structured around the classic philosophical and religious texts of India, China, and Japan, among others, how is one to organize the material?<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-medium wp-image-588\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover-213x300.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"213\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover-213x300.jpeg 213w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover.jpeg 726w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover-695x980.jpeg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Lopez-cover-106x150.jpeg 106w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 213px) 100vw, 213px\" \/><\/a>As a historian of modern East Asia who continually reminds his students that the concept of \u201cAsia\u201d itself is a Western invention, I could only think of two alternative paradigms capable of linking East, South, Southeast, and Central Asia in a respectably organic thread. For a course focused on the premodern era, \u201cthe Silk Road\u201d could serve as a suitably flexible and inclusive framework, even if, as several scholars now regularly remind us, the Silk Road never really existed. For a course focused on the modern era, the narrative glue would have to be the Japanese, who played the leading role in co-opting, revising, and substantiating the Western idea of \u201cAsia\u201d in an indigenous guise. The modern \u201cAsian experience,\u201d then, could be the study of the awareness of, resistance to, and support for the Japanese order in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<\/p>\n<p>As I was wrestling with the problem of how I could cobble together a single course on both the ancient Silk Road and the modern Japanese empire, I stumbled upon Donald S. Lopez Jr.\u2019s new book. And \u201cstumbled\u201d is definitely the correct word: I very nearly bumped into <em>Hyecho\u2019s Journey: The World of Buddhism<\/em> and knocked it off its bookstand while attempting to navigate the narrow aisles of the Freer and Sackler Galleries gift shop in Washington, D.C., just one week before the beginning of the semester. I am glad that I did. Upon further review, <em>Hyecho\u2019s Journey<\/em> turned out to be the perfect thematic companion to the Silk Road for an introductory course on Asia. In this handsomely illustrated book, Lopez does not place the textual productions of Indian, Chinese, Japanese, or Korean political and religious elites on center stage. Instead, the reader is introduced to the visual and oral traditions that Buddhist pilgrims disseminated throughout the lands now included within our present-day definitions of \u201cAsia.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>As the title of the book suggests, Lopez\u2019s pilgrim is Hyecho, an eighth-century Buddhist monk who left his native kingdom of Silla in 724 CE to undertake an arduous pilgrimage that would eventually span three years. During this time, Hyecho traveled overland across Tang China, by sea to present-day Indonesia, and thence by land across northern and northwestern India, Central Asia, and likely even Arabia, before returning to China and taking up permanent residence in Chang\u2019an. This remarkable journey, the longest of any known Buddhist pilgrim at the time, has yielded very little in the way of concrete historical documentation. As Lopez notes in his Introduction, Hyecho \u201cwas not the first monk to make the journey from China to India. He was not the last. He was not the most famous. In fact, he was among the most obscure of those whose names are known\u201d (4).<\/p>\n<p>Details of Hyecho\u2019s journey are known only from a single fragment of a manuscript from Cave 17 in Dunhuang. The French sinologist Paul Pelliot was the first to study this fragment, which appears to include a copy of a lost draft of Hyecho\u2019s journal that was deposited in Dunhuang upon the latter\u2019s return to Chang\u2019an from Central Asia in 727 CE. With the aid of a Chinese pronunciation glossary, <em>Pronunciation and Meanings of All the Scriptures<\/em> (<em>Yiqiejing yinyi<\/em> \u4e00\u5207\u7d93\u97f3\u7fa9), Pelliot was able to identify key words and phrases in this fragment of Hyecho\u2019s journal, and thus reconstruct the general parameters of Hyecho\u2019s pilgrimage throughout the world of Buddhism.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_589\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-589\" class=\"wp-image-589 size-medium\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-300x229.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"229\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-300x229.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-768x587.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-1024x783.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-695x531.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Birth-of-the-Buddha-196x150.jpg 196w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-589\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;The Birth of the Buddha,&#8221; Kushan Dynasty, 2nd-3rd CE. This stone relief, one of a set of four panels narrating the life of the historical Buddha on display at the Freer and Sackler Galleries, is examined in Chapter 7 of Lopez\u2019s new book to highlight the pilgrimage site of Lumbini, Gandharan art, and the mythological stories surrounding the birth of the Buddha. Photo by Daderot, Wikimedia Commons.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Lopez\u2019s treatment of this episode provides a preview of the structure he will adopt for each of the other eleven chapters in his book. First, he provides an intriguing story\u2014in this case, the discovery of the secret \u201ccave library\u201d at Dunhuang in 1900 and the subsequent dispersal of its contents over the ensuing decades, with Pelliot\u2019s procurement and study of the fragment of Hyecho\u2019s journal constituting much of the narrative focus. Then comes the \u201cCommentary,\u201d several pages in which Lopez provides an accessible scholarly analysis of one or more intriguing details narrated in the preceding story\u2014in this case, how Pelliot managed to identify Hyecho\u2019s journal and extrapolate its contents. Finally, the reader is treated to a section titled simply \u201cThe Art.\u201d This section includes two full-page color reproductions of Buddhist artwork associated in some way with the preceding story and commentary. In this case, the first reproduction is a page from a <em>Great Discourse on Final Nirvana<\/em> sutra found in Cave 17, which Lopez uses to illustrate the central tenets of the Mahayana interpretation of Buddhist scripture. On the next page is a painting of the bodhisattva K\u1e63itigarbha, likely commissioned by a member of the Dunhuang ruling elite in the late tenth to early eleventh centuries. Lopez uses this painting to highlight the way in which the identity of a pious Korean monk named Jijang could be merged into the identity of a \u201cChinese\u201d bodhisattva\u2014a transcultural phenomenon likely unfamiliar to students raised in a world saturated with the discourse of nationalism and nation-states.<\/p>\n<p>Subsequent chapters reproduce this three-tiered approach to Hyecho\u2019s world of Buddhism. Chapter 2 narrates popular Buddhist stories in Hyecho\u2019s native kingdom of Silla and analyzes two works of Buddhist art in Korea. Chapter 3 utilizes Hyecho\u2019s sea journey to Southeast Asia to expound on the world of \u201cmaritime Buddhism\u201d and the development of tales of salvation by Guanyin. Two Buddhist sculptures from eighth- to ninth-century Indonesia complete the narrative. The next six chapters provide a similar treatment for the major pilgrimage sites of India\u2014Lumbini, Vulture Peak, Kusinagara, Bodh Gaya, Sravasti, Samkasya\u2014followed by single chapters on Gandhara, Arabia, and Mt. Wutai.<\/p>\n<p>Though readers will learn much about the elite canonical texts of Buddhism such as the <em>Lotus Sutra<\/em> and <em>The Questions of Milinda<\/em>, Lopez devotes far more time to the sort of visual and oral productions that \u201cAsians\u201d of all economic classes and geographical backgrounds would have been familiar with. These include not only works of Buddhist art commissioned by those of more humble means, such as a simple Sui-era gilt bronze figurine depicting \u201cTwo Buddhas Seated Side by Side,\u201d but also a diverse assortment of <em>jataka<\/em> tales\u2014morality plays from the Buddha\u2019s previous lives\u2014local syncretic lore, and mythologized stories about the birth, life, and death of the historical Buddha.<\/p>\n<p>It is not a coincidence that I stumbled upon <em>Hyecho\u2019s Journey<\/em> in the gift shop of the Freer and Sackler Galleries. In fact, the entire book is structured around an ongoing exhibit, \u201cEncountering the Buddha: Art and Practice across Asia,\u201d which will remain on display until late 2020. Each of the twenty-four works of art analyzed in this book is owned by the museum, with many of them currently on display. For someone like me, based in the D.C. area, Lopez\u2019s book presents a wonderful opportunity to integrate text and visuals both within the classroom and without. In fact, I require my students to visit the galleries in person, and many do so with <em>Hyecho\u2019s Journey<\/em> in hand. Whether Lopez intended to do so or not, he has managed to produce the perfect classroom text for an \u201cIntroduction to Asia\u201d course, one that captures a visual and oral experience that, to one degree or another, would have been shared by nearly everyone who once lived within the boundaries of our modern conception of \u201cAsia.\u201d<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: right\">&#8211; <em>Justin M. Jacobs, American University<\/em><\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This review was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 102\u2013104.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Hyecho\u2019s Journey: The World of Buddhism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. &nbsp; In Fall 2018, I was asked to teach an \u201cIntroduction to Asia\u201d course at my university for the first time. After taking a look at previous iterations of the course, I decided to eschew their reliance on the [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-587","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/587","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=587"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/587\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=587"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":583,"date":"2019-03-25T14:11:36","date_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:11:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=583"},"modified":"2019-03-25T14:29:30","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:29:30","slug":"v16_2018_bookreview_whitfield","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_bookreview_whitfield\/","title":{"rendered":"Book Review"},"content":{"rendered":"<h4>Susan Whitfield. <em>Silk, Slaves, and Stupas: Material Culture of the Silk Road<\/em>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018.<\/h4>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>There are many ways of writing about the Silk Road. Most scholars choose to frame their narratives through the familiar prisms of politics, religion, and geography. In her new book, Susan Whitfield adopts a novel lens: objects. Over the course of ten chapters, Whitfield analyzes ten separate objects, using each one to highlight major themes of cultural, economic, religious, and political exchange across Eurasia. With the exception of the final chapter, which examines the commodity of slaves, each object is accompanied by a striking color image and a detailed map of the locations and trade routes associated with it. The high production values of these supplementary visual aids are one of the great strengths of the book, allowing readers to flip back and forth between the two while digesting Whitfield\u2019s narrative.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-584 \" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-199x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"262\" height=\"395\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-768x1157.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-680x1024.jpg 680w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-695x1047.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover-100x150.jpg 100w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Whitfield-cover.jpg 1784w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 262px) 100vw, 262px\" \/><\/a>The objects featured in each chapter are presented in rough chronological order based on their estimated date of production or use. Thus Chapter 1 begins with a pair of steppe earrings excavated from the Xigoupan tombs in the Ordos region of China. Having been dated to the second century BCE, these earrings provide Whitfield with a convenient platform to discuss the Xiongnu confederation, relations and cultural exchange between the Xiongnu and the Han dynasty, the jade industry, and the position of women in steppe cultures. In Chapter 2, a Hellenistic glass bowl that somehow ended up in a tomb in southern China allows Whitfield to discuss the history of glass production, the allure of glass compared to other nonorganic human technologies (i.e., pottery and metalworking), and maritime trade routes between the Levant and East Asia. Chapters on a Bactrian ewer, Buddhist stupa, the \u201cBlue Qur\u2019an,\u201d a Khotanese plaque, and Byzantine silk follow, among others.<\/p>\n<p>One of the virtues of Whitfield\u2019s approach is that she is able to range far and wide among the various peoples, cultures, and polities of Eurasia and Africa. Though half of her ten chapters deal with objects that were excavated within the present-day boundaries of China\u2014a reflection of the longstanding Sinocentric bias in the field of Silk Road studies\u2014Whitfield goes to great lengths to contextualize these finds within broader Eurasian networks of exchange far outside of China. And with the five remaining chapters not intimately associated with China, Whitfield takes the reader well beyond the usual geographical and cultural parameters of most Silk Road studies. Of particular note in this regard are Chapter 3, which expounds upon the discovery of a hundred gold Kushan coins in the Axum kingdom of present-day Ethiopia, and Chapter 7, which highlights a single folio from the so-called Blue Qur\u2019an as a springboard to discuss the history of book production, the complex dying process, the use of \u201cgolden\u201d ink, and, of course, the integral role of Islam, which often receives short shrift in treatments of the Silk Road.<\/p>\n<p>Another novel feature of the book is Whitfield\u2019s conclusion of every chapter with an intriguing \u201cafterlife\u201d of the object under scrutiny. In these sections, Whitfield charts the life history of the object as it changed hands over the centuries and eventually entered the worlds of museums and collectors. Most of these people knew little about the original production, movement, and function of the object, and instead proceeded to give it new purpose and meaning in new contexts. For me, this was one of the most intriguing parts of each chapter, and I often found myself wishing that Whitfield had devoted even more space to these afterlives. They range in length from a mere paragraph (the Hellenistic glass bowl of Chapter 2) to seven full pages (a Chinese almanac from Dunhuang highlighted in Chapter 9), with most in the range of two to three pages. The afterlife of the folio from the \u201cBlue Qur\u2019an\u201d is particularly fascinating, as Whitfield deftly shows how individual pages transformed over time from private devotional texts to public emblems of the Islamic cultural world, more for gawking than for reading.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_585\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-585\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-585\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-300x204.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"204\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-768x523.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-1024x697.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-695x473.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Blue-Quran-220x150.jpg 220w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-585\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A leaf from the \u201cBlue Qur\u2019an,\u201d one of several unorthodox objects that Whitfield includes within her survey of Silk Road material culture. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen, Wikimedia Commons.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>As a brief aside, I was surprised to find her narrative of the afterlife of the steppe earrings in Chapter 1 resonating with me on a personal level. After surveying the modern history of these earrings being lent by Chinese museums for international exhibitions abroad, Whitfield makes the astute observation that they have never been displayed as part of an exhibit focused explicitly on the Xiongnu, instead being advertised as part of better known\u2014yet grossly anachronistic and geographically misleading\u2014steppe confederations such as the Mongols or Scythians, or more recently as part of \u201cSilk Road\u201d exhibitions. I can still recall clearly how, as a fifteen-year-old high school student back in the summer of 1995, my mother took me to the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, Canada to see an \u201cEmpires of the Steppe\u201d exhibit replete with allusions to \u201cGenghis Khan\u201d and the Mongols. The earrings, along with many other artifacts dating to the Xiongnu era and that of other nomadic polities in East and Inner Asia, were undoubtedly described, as Whitfield herself notes, with great accuracy in the fine print on each accompanying placard. These placards, however, made far less of an impression on me than did the posters and brochures surrounding the event. Before reading Whitfield\u2019s book, I spent the last twenty-three years believing that I had visited a \u201cGenghis Khan\u201d exhibit, when in fact I had seen an exhibit filled mostly with Xiongnu, Khitan, and Jurchen artifacts that predated the Mongols by hundreds and in some cases over a thousand years.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of these many virtues to the book, most readers will likely be surprised to find how little they learn about the original function and identities of the actual objects featured in the color plates. The ten objects featured in this book serve chiefly as convenient entry points into a discussion of closely related themes, events, and peoples surrounding the objects. Whitfield is also not afraid to draw attention to just how little we know about the histories of individual objects or the identities of those who created and used them. Her conclusion regarding the steppe earrings analyzed in Chapter 1 is typical in this regard:<\/p>\n<p><em>What we can assume, given the earrings\u2019 materials and their complexity, is that they were an indication of wealth and status. But apart from this, as with many archaeological artifacts, we are in a state of uncertainty. We cannot be certain where they were made or who made them, and whether they were made as a whole or in parts. We do not know whether they were made for trade, gift, or ritual and whether they were acquired by purchase, plunder, or some other means. Nor do we know whether the peoples of the Xigoupan burials saw these artifacts as part of their own culture or considered them somehow foreign. (30)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Despite her critique of the international packaging of Xiongnu artifacts in museum exhibitions, Whitfield is not even willing to slap the loose identity label of \u201cXiongnu\u201d upon these earrings. In fact, after twenty-one pages of detailed discussion of steppe and sedentary interactions, dragon motifs, the ubiquity of belt plaques, and gender roles, the only firm conclusion she is willing to offer her readers is that these earrings were \u201can indication of wealth and status.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Such candor is refreshing. But it can also be quite jarring for readers accustomed to Silk Road narratives that take refuge in more definite and familiar interpretive prisms, such as politics and religion. Anchoring one\u2019s narrative in the history of the Kushan or Tang dynasties or the spread of Buddhism and Manichaeism may not represent a very novel approach, but readers of such narratives are likely to come away with a more definite grasp of key concepts, events, and peoples of the Silk Road, even if that grasp is to some degree deceptive in the end. This is ironic, for, more than any other analytical approach, Whitfield\u2019s focus on material objects would appear on the surface to be rooted in more \u201ctangible\u201d interpretive prisms than any other. And yet rarely does the reader emerge from any chapter with the ability to say much of anything definite about the object on display beyond what might be stated in a simple two or three sentence caption. In that sense, we might characterize this book as offering its readers more a rich and eventful journey than a destination. Each chapter can stand more or less on its own, without reference to the other chapters. And there is no conclusion\u2014after ten chapters and ten objects, the journey simply ends.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: right\">&#8211; <em>Justin M. Jacobs, American University<\/em><\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This review was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 100\u2013102.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Susan Whitfield. Silk, Slaves, and Stupas: Material Culture of the Silk Road. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018. &nbsp; There are many ways of writing about the Silk Road. Most scholars choose to frame their narratives through the familiar prisms of politics, religion, and geography. In her new book, Susan Whitfield adopts a novel lens: [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-583","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/583","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=583"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/583\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=583"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":571,"date":"2019-03-25T00:32:10","date_gmt":"2019-03-25T00:32:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=571"},"modified":"2019-03-25T14:28:37","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:28:37","slug":"v16_2018_rumschlag","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/v16_2018_rumschlag\/","title":{"rendered":"One Bow (or Stirrup) Is Not Equal to Another: A Comparative Look at Hun and Mongol Military Technologies"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Samuel Rumschlag<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">University of Wisconsin-Madison<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In his landmark study of the rapid rise and decline of the Huns in the fifth century CE, E.A. Thompson observed that \u201chistory is no longer satisfied to ascribe so striking a movement as the rise of the Hun empire to the genius of a single man \u2026 it is only in terms of the development of their society that we can explain \u2026 how they came to build up so vast an empire of their own, and yet proved unable to hold it for more than a few years\u201d (1996: 46). By making this claim, Thompson did not intend to diminish the role that gifted Hun leaders played in guiding their society to international prominence\u2014only to point out that monocausal explanations cannot adequately capture historical reality in all its completeness. Leadership is obviously important, but even the most talented leader is limited by his or her circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>Even so, much nomadic scholarship has tended to privilege charismatic leadership as one of the most important factors, if not the single most important factor, that contributed to successful nomadic military organization (see, for example, Di Cosmo 1999: 19-21; Drompp 2005: 108). This tendency comes to a head in studies of the Mongol expansion, where scholars note that Chinggis Khan successfully set up a ruling system based on loyalty to the \u201choly charisma\u201d of the ruling house (Golden 2000: 36), redirecting old tribal loyalties from (real or fictive) kinship-based structures to a new and exclusive focus on duty to the Mongol royal house (Morgan 1986: 90). While these points and the scholarship that supports them are certainly valid, there is sometimes a tendency toward too great a focus on the importance of leadership at the expense of other important contributing factors to nomadic military successes.<\/p>\n<p>Of course, leadership is not the only explanation offered for nomadic military prowess. The mobility of nomadic troops is also an oft-cited factor used to explain their military successes (Morgan 1986: 86; Thompson 1996: 55), as is the quality and number of mounts which made such mobility possible (Sinor 1972: 171). Other such factors often include nomadic battle tactics, such as the art of luring enemies into vulnerable positions before attacking them (May 2018: 1), along with specific political developments, in both nomadic polities and those of their adversaries, that altered the nomadic balance of power vis-\u00e0-vis their opponents. While worthy foci of scholarly attention, all these factors offer only a partial explanation of nomadic successes. Scholars should also look for additional factors that contributed to nomadic successes and can help explain historical realities that are only partially explained by appeals to leadership, mobility, politics, and tactics.<\/p>\n<p>For example, it is significant that the Huns even at their peak under Attila never won a victory against a full-strength Roman field army, mostly chalking up victories against disorganized opponents when the Roman legions were engaged elsewhere. Every time the Huns <em>did<\/em> meet the Roman military for open battle proper, they either lost miserably or won Pyrrhic victories\u2014Attila\u2019s bloody victory over the Byzantine army in 447 CE is a good example (Thompson 1996: 227). The Mongols, on the other hand, routinely and ably trounced the best soldiers and armies the most powerful sedentary states could throw at them. I contend that gifted leadership or better use of mobile armies in the \u201cexposed zones\u201d where many nomadic victories were won and where nomadic political and cultural influence was most heavily felt (Lieberman 2008: 693) are not enough to explain these differential successes.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, overly simplistic explanations that attribute nomadic victories to superior numbers of combatants (Smith 1975: 272) or the incompetence of the nomad\u2019s enemies (Smith 1984: 345) are the result of putting too much trust in flawed and fragmentary primary sources. Close analysis reveals that many of the innate advantages we assume nomadic societies to have enjoyed over their sedentary foes are in fact illusory. May (2006) has noted that although scholarship has tended to characterize nomadic armies as mainly achieving victory by \u201coverwhelm[ing] their opponents through sheer ferocity or superior numbers\u201d (517) or has simply brushed off their prowess by claiming that nomads were \u201cnatural warriors inured since birth to riding and archery in the harsh climate of the steppe\u201d (517), nomadic armies were in fact often quite small when compared to those of their opponents (623) and required every bit as much training to become battle-ready as the professional soldiers they fought. Indeed, the martial lifestyle came no more \u201cnaturally\u201d to them than to anyone else. Indeed, to many observers in the ancient world it must have seemed that the armies of stable sedentary states enjoyed innumerable advantages over their mobile counterparts: funding, equipment, supplies, professional leadership\u2014the list goes on.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_573\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-573\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-573\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-300x149.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"149\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-300x149.png 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-768x382.png 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-1024x509.png 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-695x345.png 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1-302x150.png 302w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-1.png 1463w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-573\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. Mongol riders escorting prisoners, from an early 14th-century illustration of Rashid ad-Din\u2019s \u201cUniversal History\u201d (Gami at-tawarih). The riders and mounts pictured on either side of the prisoners offer a glimpse of Mongol stirrups and quivers, while the mount on the left is also equipped with a saddle. Biblioth\u00e8que national de France, D\u00e9partement des Manuscrits, Division orientale, Supplement Persan 1113, folio 231v.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Why then do we see powerful armies in the service of sedentary states so often trounced by nomadic foes? Were nomadic victories really as \u201cinevitable\u201d as some incautious authors have claimed (Bartlett 2010), or is some other overlooked factor at play? To help explain nomadic successes, I will highlight one aspect of nomadic society that is not frequently discussed. I argue that superior military technology was as crucial to nomadic military victories as were other factors such as gifted leadership and extreme mobility. Improvements made to nomadic military technologies over time allowed successive nomadic groups to be increasingly successful vis-a-vis their sedentary enemies until the eventual invention of firearms leveled the playing field. Far from being a peripheral consideration, uniquely nomadic military technology operated simultaneously with good leadership and high mobility in successful nomadic armies, and each factor complemented the advantages conferred by the others. The loss of even one of these advantages would have seriously impoverished the ability of a nomadic society to mount successful campaigns against well-equipped sedentary foes.<\/p>\n<p>An added benefit of incorporating technological improvements into our explanatory frameworks is the potential for such a perspective to explain not only nomadic victories over powerful sedentary foes, but also differential successes between different nomadic groups over time. Using two comparative case studies, I will argue that the mediocre successes of the Huns in the 5th century and the dazzling successes of the Mongols in the 13th century are due to differences in archery and saddle\/stirrup technology in addition to other factors such as quality of military leadership. Despite the tendency of posterity to assume that one mounted archer is equal to another, from a technological perspective, this is simply not the case.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_574\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-574\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-574\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-300x218.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"218\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-300x218.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-768x557.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-1024x743.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-695x504.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-2-207x150.jpg 207w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-574\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 2. Diagram of a composite bow. (After: Hank Iken, in Grayson et al. 2007, Traditional Archery from Six Continents)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although the Huns and Mongols are hardly the only two nomadic groups to practice mounted archery successfully, several factors make them ideal for comparison. First, their origins trace to the same geographic area of the world (Kim 2016: 6; May 2006: 630). They were likewise both inheritors of similar nomadic military traditions derived from their common ancestral group, the Xiongnu (circa 300 BCE-200 CE) (Golden 2011: 33; Vaissere 2005). The Xiongnu were important technological innovators, introducing to mounted archery several important new developments, including paired stirrups in the fifth century CE and stiffening bone plates on the limb ends of their composite bows. The Huns of Europe had the stiffening bone plates that were first developed by the Xiongnu but lacked the technological innovations that the Xiongnu remaining in Inner Eurasia developed in the fifth century and subsequent periods, such as the paired stirrup. But by the time of the Mongols, these inventions had been widely adopted and mastered in Inner Eurasia. An understanding of Mongol technology, such as their use of paired stirrups and an improved composite bow design, is important in explaining the technological supremacy and, by extension, the enhanced military capabilities of the Mongols. Like leadership, tactics, and politics, however, any appeal to technology remains only one part of a larger composite picture.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_575\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-575\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-575\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-300x220.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"220\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-300x220.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-768x562.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-1024x749.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-695x509.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3-205x150.jpg 205w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-3.jpg 2035w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-575\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 3. Diagram of a self bow. (After: Hank Iken, in Grayson et al. 2007, Traditional Archery from Six Continents)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Not all aspects of Hun and Mongol military technology can be attributed to the Xiongnu. Both groups were inheritors of a long nomadic tradition of mounted archery, and the arsenal and practices of both groups reflect the contributions of many others. Still, though, at a foundational level Hun and Mongol military practices are marked more by similarity than by difference, and this makes the subtle differences that do exist between them especially illuminating. The Huns and Mongols are also comparatively well-studied archaeologically, with enough surviving examples of their bows and equestrian accoutrement to permit a thorough discussion that is well-grounded in empirical data.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The Technology of Mounted Archery<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The primary weapon of every nomadic mounted archer was the composite bow, defined as a bow composed of at least three layers of varying materials (Reisinger 2010: 44). Sometimes, these bows are also termed \u201cScythian bows\u201d after their supposed inventors (Mock 2013: 52). Composite bows are distinct from self bows, which are made from a single material such as a wooden stave, and laminated bows, which are made from several bonded layers of the same material, usually wood (Bergman, et al. 1988: 660). The earliest archaeological example of a nomadic composite bow dates to at least 1000 BCE., based on the 2010 discovery of a Scythian-style bow in the Yanghai cemetery of Xinjiang province in the People\u2019s Republic of China (Beck, et al. 2014: 225; Karpowicz and Selby 2010: 94). All later nomadic bows were variants of this basic type. While far from common, these bows are not as archaeologically rare as one might think (Hall 2005: 28).<sup>1<\/sup><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_576\" style=\"width: 251px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-576\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-576\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-4-241x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"241\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-4-241x300.jpg 241w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-4-121x150.jpg 121w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-4.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 241px) 100vw, 241px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-576\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 4. Early 14th-century depiction of Mongol archers shooting with composite bows, from an illustration of Rashid ad-Din\u2019s \u201cUniversal History\u201d (Gami at-tawarih). Watercolor on paper. Biblioth\u00e8que national de France, D\u00e9partement des Manuscrits, Division orientale, Supplement Persan 1113, folio 231v.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>For most nomads, the three dissimilar materials that comprised the composite bow were wood, horn, and sinew (Paterson 1984: 38). Wood forms the core and grip of the bow and is backed by sinew to add tensile strength. It is then fronted with horn, which has a high coefficient of restitution\u2014that is, its springiness lets it return quickly to its original shape after being subjected to compression. The energy of the decompressing horn serves two purposes simultaneously: it lends power to the bow\u2019s release and helps the front of the wooden core\u2014the belly\u2014resist compression amid repeated use (Bergman and McEwen 1997: 145; Reisinger 2010: 44). The sinew serves the same function: after being stretched, it returns quickly to its resting position, again protecting the wooden core of the bow and storing additional potential energy to be transferred to the arrow upon the release of the string. The impact on the capabilities of the finished bow are significant, as horn has 3.5 times the compression resistance of wood, while sinew can stretch five times as far as hardwood without breaking. The end result is a bow that both stores energy and transfers it to the arrow much more efficiently than a self bow, and is also much smaller (Bergman and McEwen 1997: 145). The application of these materials is not uniform and varies across space and time. Some bows, such as examples uncovered from Miran, China are backed with sinew nearly to the nocks (Hall and Farrell 2008: 90). Others, such as the Mongol-period Omnogov bow (discussed below) adopt a much more minimalist design that increases the recovery speed of the bow\u2019s limbs and therefore its energy efficiency (Atex and Menes 1995: 75).<\/p>\n<p>Composite bows are also often recurved, reflexed, or both. In a strung recurved bow, the limbs bend forward, away from the archer. In an unstrung reflexed bow, the entire limbs of the bow reverse themselves away from the direction of the draw. This innovation invests composite reflexed and recurved bows with greater efficiency than non-recurved or reflexed bows. By preloading tension on even the undrawn strung bow, the reflexing and recurving limbs allow more potential energy to be stored in the limbs at full draw with a lighter draw weight (due to the leverage conferred by the recurved limbs). This lends greater force and velocity to the arrow upon release and allows the bow unit to be physically much shorter without reducing the draw length, an important consideration for archers aspiring to shoot from horseback (Bergman, et al. 1988: 660; Reisinger 2010: 45). Self bows, on the other hand, cannot be shortened without significantly shortening the draw length, since wood unsupported by other materials can only bend so far before breaking. As an added benefit, the shortness of the composite recurve\u2019s limbs make them lighter, so less potential energy is wasted moving the limbs back to their original position. This energy is instead transferred to the arrow, and ultimately, the target it impacts.<sup>2<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>When strung, many composite recurves are less than three feet from end to end. Most are in the vicinity of sixty centimeters (Drews 2004: 101). We might compare this figure to the English longbow, a self bow made from a single stave of yew or elm. These bows were usually six or more feet in length (~183 cm+) and required much more effort to draw than a similarly powerful recurve bow. Without the leverage of recurved limbs, and the additional potential energy stored in the sinew and horn of a composite bow, all the energy to be transferred to the arrow had to come from one source only: the muscle power of the archer, who bent the bow\u2019s wood. Composite bows clearly were superior from this perspective, as they provided as much or more power with much less energy required for each draw (Emeneau 1953: 78). In addition to allowing more effective archery from horseback (longbows can be used from horseback with difficulty), short, efficient nomad bows allowed people who would never have been strong enough to draw an English-style longbow to be full participants in the nomadic mounted archer army. Composite recurve bows are also sometimes asymmetric, with the lower limb being shorter than the upper limb\u2014an important design choice that allowed mounted archers to rotate easily to aim at targets on either side of their mount, provided they had the appropriate saddle technology to enable this. Despite the general features discussed above that were common in all composite bows, there were definite differences between Hunnic and Mongol bows that rendered Mongol bows superior in a variety of ways, differences that I propose were at least partially responsible for their differential successes on the battlefield.<\/p>\n<p>Maintenance was a constant issue. Extreme temperature changes or exposure to dampness could warp the limbs, and twists in the limbs could render such bows inaccurate at best and useless at worst. Taybugh\u0101 l-Ashraf\u012b l-Baklamish\u012b l-Y\u016bnan\u012b, a Mameluke author who penned an archer\u2019s manual for beginners in the fourteenth century, advised archers in cold weather to \u201cput the bow inside his clothes and warm it with his body. When going to bed at night, he should also keep the bow inside his clothes to protect it from the damp\u201d (Latham and Paterson 1970: 94). Such discomfort was worthwhile given the difficulty of repairing warped limbs. In order do so, archers would have had to warm their bows over a fire and apply the appropriate corrective pressures. Even after careful and skilled repair, however, the bow would never be quite the same, especially if an overly zealous owner overcorrected for the original warping (Loades 2016: 27). Though the Huns used a bow that featured a design change that made it more durable in the long term, this came at the price of reduced energy transfer efficiency to the arrow.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Hun and Mongol Bows<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In the seasonally variable and damp climate of eastern Europe, where most Hun sites are found, organic material such as horn, wood, and sinew do not preserve well. If these were the only components of Hunnic bows, archaeologists would be limited to the few fragmentary and questionable primary sources passed down to us by Roman historians with an interest in Hun culture. Fortunately, by the fourth century CE, a new technology had been applied to the traditional composite recurve design: stiffening bone plates attached to the grip and limb ends of bows, which minimized the warping effect that humidity and fluctuating temperatures could cause (Boie and Bader 1995: 29). Man (2005) compares the bone plates to fingernails on the end of a human digit (99). This is an apt analogy\u2014the bone plates provide a rigidity to the limb ends that wood alone cannot, thus helping to prevent twist and warp. Although bows with this feature are frequently called \u201cHun bows,\u201d the Xiongnu of Inner Asia from whom the Huns derived were actually the first to add such plates to the nomadic composite bow design, and such modifications appear across Eurasia after the initial Xiongnu heyday. Strictly speaking, it is therefore a pan-Eurasian design rather than a uniquely Hunnic design.<sup>3<\/sup><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_577\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-577\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-577\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-300x91.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"91\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-300x91.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-768x233.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-1024x310.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-695x210.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-5-copy-480x145.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-577\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 5. The Tsagaan Khad (White Rocks) bow. National Museum of Mongolia. All photos courtesy of author.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Hun tradition dictated that warriors be buried with their bows across their chest. A number of Hunnic graves across Europe and West Asia have yielded stiffening bone pieces that were recovered both intact and <em>in situ<\/em> (Loades 2016: 17). Careful measurements have allowed for the reconstruction of the size and shape of the original bows, though unfortunately without the other original materials of construction. For archaeologists, the inclusion of these stiffening plates is fortunate, for the bone they are made from preserves quite well in poor conditions. They therefore allow us to study the construction of Hun bows that have otherwise long since decomposed.<\/p>\n<p>The durability these plates added to Hun bows came at the price of efficiency. Bone is heavier than the other materials that make up composite bows, and therefore, it takes more of the drawn bow\u2019s potential energy to accelerate these heavy bone additions and move them back to the strung, undrawn position. While this is also true of horn and sinew, the crucial difference is that both horn and sinew store additional potential energy in a drawn composite bow, more than compensating for their use of some additional potential energy during release. The stiffening bone plates, on the other hand, consumed energy without contributing any. The energy used to move them, which would otherwise have been transferred to the arrow, was instead lost, with a result of decreased arrow velocity and penetration at the point of impact. It is not currently possible to determine the exact amount of lost energy per shot, since without the specifications of the other materials in the bow it is impossible to do so accurately. Given the weight of the bone, however, the amount of lost energy entailed by such an addition must have been significant (Atex and Menes 1995: 75).<\/p>\n<p>As far as the limited archaeological evidence can demonstrate, conquest-period Mongol bows were virtually identical to Hunnic bows, minus the stiffening bone plates. Modern Mongolian bows are of no comparative use here; by the 17th century, the Mongols had abandoned the use of the bow in war and it was only in the mid-eighteenth century that they re-adopted a variation of the Chinese Manchu\/Qing bow into their arsenal. Qing bows, designed to compete with European muskets by delivering extremely heavy arrows at high velocities, are much larger and heavier than the Mongol conquest-period bows. Michael Loades describes them aptly as \u201cthe longest and most massive of all composite bow types \u2026 it was a bow for the power shot, rather than the rapid shot\u201d (2016: 20-21). As such, they were very different from the light but still powerful bows of the Chingissid Age.<\/p>\n<p>Only two complete conquest-period Mongol bows have ever been found, the most recent one in 2010 in a cave at Tsagaan Khad (White Mountain) in modern Mongolia\u2019s Ovorkhangaj Aimag. The dry cave environment in which it was deposited allowed for an extraordinary level of preservation: even traces of the original red, black, and yellow pigments survive, along with inlaid gold leaf. Dating to the 14th or 15th century CE, even the red silk string survived intact\u2014upon recovery, the bow was still strung (Loades 2016: 19). The stress on the limbs resulting from being constantly tensed by the string over many centuries resulted in significant warping, but not so much that the original shape, specifications, and composition of the bow could not be analyzed (details in Ahrens, et al. 2015: 685; Biro 2013: 17).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_578\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-578\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-578\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-768x767.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-1024x1022.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-6-cropped-695x694.jpg 695w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-578\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 6. 2nd-3rd century wooden saddle.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The other conquest period bow is even better preserved, and similarly designed. The Omnogov Bow, as it is known, was discovered in 1984, also in a cave burial, at Ikh Bayany Agui in Mongolia\u2019s Omnogov Aimag. Though some scholars have suggested that the bow dates to as late as 1720 CE, most analysts agree that the bow is in fact much earlier, dating to the 12th or 13th century CE (Ahrens, et al. 2015: 686). The virtually identical design of the convincingly dated Tsagaan Khad bow lends support to the earlier date. The Omnogov Bow, like all known Mongol-period bows, lacked the stiffening bone plates of the older Hunnic bows. The elimination of the performance-reducing bone stiffeners to the limb ends of the bow is the primary design difference between Hunnic and Mongol bows, one which rendered Mongol bows superior. According to Atex and Menes, \u201cdoing away with the mass and weight of the bone tips would have added a considerable amount of speed to the bow.\u201d Bone, and the adhesives needed to bond it to the wooden core, they note, is roughly twice the weight of an equivalent amount of hardwood. Thus its elimination \u201cwould allow a much higher recovery speed of the tips, greatly increasing arrow speed.\u201d The Mongol bow, then, \u201cwas a little shorter than that of the Hun and with the light tips would have been far superior\u201d in terms of arrow speed (1995: 75).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_579\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-579\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-579\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-695x463.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-7-225x150.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-579\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 7. 7th-8th century wooden saddle.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>While the stiffening bone plates of the Hunnic bows made them more durable, they would have added weight to the bow that resulted in wasted energy from every shot, which translates into lower arrow velocities, penetrating power, and shorter ranges. The significance of even a slight edge in terms of arrow velocity, range, and penetrating power should not be underestimated. Although such an observation alone is clearly not enough to explain Hunnic successes versus Mongol successes, we should bear in mind that different weapon capabilities doubtlessly played at least some role in the differential military successes of the two groups. In the future, perhaps detailed reconstructions of the Tsagaan Khad and Omnogov bows will permit more detailed assessments of their capability. If a complete Hunnic bow is ever found and reconstructed, a much more rigorous comparison of their differential capabilities could be undertaken.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_580\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-580\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-580\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"198\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-300x198.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-768x506.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-1024x675.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-695x458.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-8-copy-228x150.jpg 228w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-580\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 8. 13th-14th century replica of a Mongol-era saddle.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>But the recurved composite bow was not the only crucial piece of military technology deployed by the nomads. Saddles, and especially the later addition of stirrups, provided the platforms from which mounted archers traveled and fought. Therefore, in order to fully understand the battlefield dynamics of nomadic armies, an examination of saddle and stirrup technological innovations is essential. Again, the Mongols enjoyed a subtle but significant technological advantage over the Huns, one that made them much more deadly as mounted archers. The Huns of the fourth and fifth centuries CE used wooden saddles without paired stirrups. This is confirmed not only by archaeological finds but also by primary source texts. The textual basis for this claim comes from a reference in Jordanes\u2019 <em>Getica<\/em>. Jordanes, a Gothic historian, wrote from Constantinople in 551 CE, a century after the Huns and Romans clashed at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Jordanes records that Atilla, sensing defeat, ordered a great funeral pyre of saddles to be erected, on which he would throw himself into the flames so as to deprive the Romans the satisfaction of killing or capturing him (Jordanes 2014: 43). The fact that saddles were suitable for a pyre is ample evidence that they were wooden. Archaeological evidence lends further support to this. In fact, during this period, wooden saddles among nomadic groups were the norm rather than the exception; in fact, they are well-attested pieces of nomadic equestrian accoutrement in many places and times (Tka\u010denko 2010). But in the case of the Huns, there is no evidence of stirrups, either in textual or archaeological sources. (There is disagreement among scholars whether the Huns used cloth or leather toe loops strictly as mounting aids, along with how widespread the toe loops may have been if they existed at all.)<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_581\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-581\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-581\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-300x190.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"190\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-300x190.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-768x487.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-1024x650.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-695x441.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-9-236x150.jpg 236w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-581\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 9. 7th-8th century iron stirrups.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Roman cavalry, which was contemporaneous to the Huns, used wooden saddle technology without stirrups that was borrowed from the Parthians. Presumably, then, the presence and utilization of stirrups would have been worth observing, recording, and discussing for Roman authors. Though excavations at Hunnic sites have turned up bits, fragments of wooden saddles, and bridle ornaments, not a single stirrup or anything that could be interpreted as one has been found (Istvanovits and Kulcsar 2014: 269; Maenchen-Helfen 1979: 209; Man 2005: 56); it is generally agreed that stirrups did not reach Europe until the arrival of the Avars in the late 6th or early 7th century CE (May 2018: 5).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_582\" style=\"width: 304px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-582\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-582\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-294x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"294\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-294x300.jpg 294w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-768x783.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-1004x1024.jpg 1004w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-695x709.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10-147x150.jpg 147w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/Figure-10.jpg 1834w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 294px) 100vw, 294px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-582\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 10. Iron stirrups from the Mongol era.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although the lack of stirrups was a challenge to the practice of horse archery for groups like the Huns, it was not an insurmountable one. Loades, based on experiments conducted using a Parthian wooden four-horn saddle without stirrups (a nomadic design temporally close to the time of the Huns), has noted that leaning into the front horns lifted the rider\u2019s seat almost as effectively as standing in paired stirrups, and enabled their hips to absorb shocks and minimize the jostling that can disrupt aim at the moment of shooting. Stirrups, he concludes, were not an essential prerequisite for horse archery. Archaeological evidence of Loades\u2019 technique for practicing mounted archery with Parthian four-horn wooden saddles can be found in a stone carving of a Parthian mounted archer held in Berlin\u2019s Museum f\u00fcr Islamisches Kunst (Driel-Murray, et al. 2002: 17; Loades 2016: 55).<\/p>\n<p>The lack of stirrups constituted a significant handicap for mounted archers, even if it was not insurmountable. Stirrups enable a more stable platform for shooting by allowing archers to rise partially in the saddle and use their knees as shock absorbers, and this in turn allowed the archer to recruit their leg and core muscles in order to draw heavier bows while riding. From a seated position, only the muscles of the arm and chest can be recruited into the draw. Without the muscles of the leg and core to aid in drawing, the Hunnic bows would most likely have been lighter in draw weight than later Mongol bows. The lack of preserved organic material from a Hunnic bow precludes the calculation of draw weights, but we can combine this observation with evidence noted above: namely, that the stiffening bone plates of Hunnic bows would have reduced their efficiency. Therefore, even at the peak of Hunnic prowess, Hunnic bows would have been inferior to the Mongol bow in three ways: draw weight, energy transfer efficiency, and in the absence of sturdy paired stirrups, ease of handling from horseback.<\/p>\n<p>A skilled rider equipped with stirrups can control a horse with his or her knees even without placing his hands on the reigns. For a Hunnic rider, the only solid point of contact with the horse while shooting would have been the hips\/pelvis. Without stirrups, hands-free control of the horse would have been impossible. In order to control their horses, Hunnic soldiers would have had to cease firing and grasp the reigns. Though Loades\u2019 experiments demonstrate that mounted archery can be practiced with only a good wooden saddle, it also provides evidence that mounted archery is much more effective if the rider can control the horse and fire their bow at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>Another decisive liability that came with the Hunnic lack of stirrups was the inability of riders to inflict or sustain a shock while on horseback without being dismounted (Christian 1998: 281; Dien 1986: 36; Goodrich 1984: 285; White 1964: 1-2). The inability to maneuver one\u2019s position in the saddle while riding at high speeds\u2014let alone while shooting\u2014without stirrups was also disadvantageous. The Xiongnu who threatened the northern frontier of Han China provide compelling evidence that pre-stirrup strategies were largely limited to hit-and-run style raids rather than prolonged conflict with enemy armies (Christian 1998: 191; Drews 2004: 116). The Huns, who never won a battle against a full-strength Roman field army and inflicted most of their damage in the absence of serious organized resistance, exemplified this strategic approach. While effective in certain settings, such limited capabilities were best paired with strategies that aimed to keep an enemy off balance rather than engage them in a prolonged war of conquest. Not surprisingly, this is precisely the sort of behavior ancient authors record the Huns as excelling at.<\/p>\n<p>Of course, hit and run strategies remained important to pastoralists even after the acquisition of the stirrup, but its acquisition allowed pastoralist tactics to evolve in several significant ways that made them devastating to opponents, especially foot armies. The horned wooden saddles of the Hunnic period were a tremendous improvement over earlier Scythian period \u201csoft saddles,\u201d which consisted of two leather pads, sewn together, filled with hair or plant material, and crudely attached to the horse with a simple girth strap (Olsen 1988: 186; Tka\u010denko 2010: 1). Such simple saddles are known archaeologically from the 5th to 3rd century BCE Pazyryk burials. But still, the lack of stirrups was a serious military handicap for the Huns, one that limited the effectiveness of their engagements with Roman military forces. Nearly a millennium later, however, exploiting the advantages of better bow and saddle\/stirrup technology would have been second nature to the Mongols\u2014and enabled them to engage even the best-trained infantry or heavy cavalry army much more effectively than the Huns had ever done.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that Mongol saddles were also wooden. Not only that, but Mongol bows were morphologically similar to those of the Huns. However, Mongols saddles and bows were combined with sturdy paired stirrups. Again, this is attested both archaeologically and textually. Generally speaking, usually only women made leather and cloth goods among the Mongols, as recorded by William of Rubruck in the thirteenth century (Dawson 1966: 97). Men are very clearly listed as the makers of wooden and metal goods: \u201cthe men make bows and arrows, manufacture stirrups and bits and make saddles \u2026\u201d (Dawson 1966: 103). The Mongols retained the nomadic tradition of crafting saddles from wood and paired them with metal (probably iron) stirrups.<\/p>\n<p>It is, however, <em>not<\/em> likely that stirrups were a recent invention at the time of the Mongols. Tka\u010denko (2010: 2) claims that saddles and stirrups were first paired sometime in the early first millennium CE in the region of the Xiongnu confederation, from whom the Huns split off and the Mongols descended. Littauer (2002: 439) argues for an even more precise origin point in the 5th century CE, and May (2018: 5) supports the view that they were present among the Xianbei (a nomadic group who lived in what is today eastern Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeast China) by the early 4th century CE, from whence they made their way into China proper. Given the Hunnic lack of stirrups, it seems clear that the technology developed too late for the migrating Huns to carry with them on their way west to Europe, but probably developed shortly thereafter. So though the Huns lacked stirrups, by the time of the Mongols, Inner Eurasian nomads had possessed them and been mastering their use in combat for nearly a millennium.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, technology, like leadership or mobility, is only one piece of a tangled web of intertwined causes and effects that tell the tale of nomadic warfare. It would be misguided to attribute the rise of a stunningly successful nomadic group like the Mongols to superior technology alone. There were many nomadic groups who were chronologically much closer in time to the Mongols than were the Huns that possessed similar riding technology but did not come even close to achieving the same military successes. This alone should be taken as sufficient evidence that leadership, politics, and so forth retain a considerable degree of explanatory utility. To appeal to technology alone would be to vastly overstate the case the evidence supports. At the same time, however, it would be equally foolish to ignore the role that technology played in enabling some nomads to best their sedentary peers where their predecessors had been only annoyances. In the future, perhaps detailed reconstructions of nomadic bows will permit detailed calculations of draw weights and, in turn, arrow speed and penetrating power. If a complete Hunnic bow is ever discovered, similar reconstructions would allow the precise effect of the performance-limiting bone plates to be assessed. But even if such discoveries never come to light, the evidence that does exist more than supports the thesis that considerations of technology deserve to be integrated into analyses of nomadic societies much more thoroughly than they previously have been.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Author<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Samuel Rumschlag<\/strong> is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His research focuses on conflict between nomadic steppe peoples and early Chinese dynasties in the frontier region of what is now southern Mongolia and northern China. E-mail: &lt;rumschlag@wisc.edu&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Acknowledgments<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The author would like to thank the Center for Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who provided research funding for travel to Mongolia where much of this research was conducted. Thanks are also due to the Department of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison for their generous support over the past two academic years, and to Dr. Nam C. Kim and Dr. J. M. Kenoyer, my academic advisers for their generous gifts of guidance, insight, and time during my graduate career so far.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">References<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"EndNoteBibliography\"><strong>Ahrens et al 2015<br \/>\n<\/strong>Birte Ahrens, H. Piezonka, and G. 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Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Olsen 1988<br \/>\n<\/strong>Stanley J. Olsen. \u201cThe Horse in Ancient China and Its Cultural Influence in Some Other Areas.\u201d <i>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia\u00a0<\/i>140, no. 2 (1988): 151-89.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Paterson 1984<br \/>\n<\/strong>W.F. Paterson. <i>Encyclopaedia of Archery<\/i>. London: Robert Hale, 1984.<\/p>\n<p class=\"EndNoteBibliography\"><strong>Reisinger 2010<br \/>\n<\/strong>Michaela Reisinger. \u201cNew Evidence about Composite Bows and Their Arrows in Inner Asia.\u201d <i>The Silk Road <\/i>8 (2010): 42-62.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Sinor 1972<br \/>\n<\/strong>Denis Sinor. \u201cHorse and Pasture in Inner Asian history.\u201d <i>Oriens extremus\u00a0<\/i>19, no. 1 (1972): 171-83.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Paterson 1984<br \/>\n<\/strong>W.F. Paterson. <i>Encyclopaedia of Archery<\/i>. London: Robert Hale, 1984.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Smith 1975<br \/>\n<\/strong>John Masson Smith Jr. \u201cMongol Manpower and Persian Population.\u201d <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient\u00a0<\/i>18, no. 3 (1975): 271-99.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Smith 1984<br \/>\n<\/strong>John Masson Smith Jr. \u201cAyn J\u0101l\u016bt: Maml\u016bk Sucess or Mongol Failure?\u201d <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies<\/i>44, no. 2 (1984): 307-45.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Paterson 1984<br \/>\n<\/strong>W.F. Paterson. <i>Encyclopaedia of Archery<\/i>. London: Robert Hale, 1984.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Thompson 1996<br \/>\n<\/strong>E.A. Thompson. <i>The Huns<\/i>. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1996.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Tka\u010denko 2010<br \/>\n<\/strong>Irina Dmitrievna Tka\u010denko. \u201cRiding Horse Tack among the Cattle-breeders of Central Asia and Southern Siberia in the First and Second Millennia CE.\u201d <i>\u00c9tudes mongoles et sib\u00e9riennes, centrasiatiques et tib\u00e9taines\u00a0<\/i>41 (2010). Available online: <a href=\"https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/emscat\/1552\">https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/emscat\/1552<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>De la Vaissere 2005<br \/>\n<\/strong>Etienne de la Vaissere. \u201cHuns et Xiongnu.\u201d <i>Central Asiatic Journal\u00a0<\/i>49, no. 1 (2005): 3-26.<\/p>\n<p><strong>White 1964<br \/>\n<\/strong>Lynne White. <i>Medieval Technology and Social Change<\/i>. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Endnotes<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><sup>1<\/sup> Biro (2013) has provided a thorough discussion of the terminology surrounding the academic study of archaeological finds relating to archery.<\/p>\n<p><sup>2<\/sup> For a more detailed discussion of bow mechanics, see Baker 1992, Balfour 1890, Kooi 1996, Loades 2016, and McEwen et al. 1991.<\/p>\n<p><sup>3<\/sup> Though I have retained the designation \u201cHun bow\u201d to describe the technology employed by the Huns of Europe, readers should remain aware that the application of the bone plate technology was unique neither to the Huns or to Europe.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 78\u201390.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Samuel Rumschlag University of Wisconsin-Madison &nbsp; In his landmark study of the rapid rise and decline of the Huns in the fifth century CE, E.A. Thompson observed that \u201chistory is no longer satisfied to ascribe so striking a movement as the rise of the Hun empire to the genius of a single man \u2026 it [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-571","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/571","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=571"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/571\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=571"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}},{"id":568,"date":"2019-03-24T21:47:06","date_gmt":"2019-03-24T21:47:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/?page_id=568"},"modified":"2019-03-25T14:27:53","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T14:27:53","slug":"noda_sr_v16_2018_japanese_spies","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/noda_sr_v16_2018_japanese_spies\/","title":{"rendered":"Japanese Spies in Inner Asia during the Early Twentieth Century*"},"content":{"rendered":"<h5><span style=\"color: #800000\">Jin Noda\u00a0\u91ce\u7530\u4ec1<\/span><\/h5>\n<h6><span style=\"color: #800000\">Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"color: #800000\">Tokyo University of Foreign Studies<\/span><\/h6>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>After the Meiji restoration, interactions with foreign countries played an important role in the course of modern Japanese history. As is well known, at the turn of the twentieth century Japan was involved in two major wars in and around the northeastern territory of the Qing Empire: the Sino-Japanese War (1894\u20135) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904\u20135). In the course of these battlefield engagements, the Army General Staff and other members of the Japanese government began to consider the strategic value of territories in northwestern China. More specifically, they began to set their sights on Xinjiang, or East Turkestan. This article will examine the earliest Japanese attempts to explore and infiltrate Xinjiang during the latter half of the nineteenth century and shed light on the first Japanese contacts with Muslim societies.<\/p>\n<p>This study is based upon research carried out in the Central Government Archives of the Republic of Kazakhstan (TsGA RK), which contains some of the records kept by the Russian imperial bureaucracy regarding Japanese agents who explored Xinjiang.<sup>1<\/sup> The perspectives of the Russian archives in Kazakhstan will be supplemented by contemporary publications and archival records produced by Japanese explorers and government agents who traveled to Xinjiang during this time.<\/p>\n<p>Prior research has focused mainly on Japan\u2019s interest in Xinjiang within the context of Tokyo\u2019s policies toward China (Fujita 2000; Fang 2000).<sup>2<\/sup> From a broader perspective, however, Japan\u2019s interest in Xinjiang might be better explained within the context of Russo-Japanese relations. Though the Japan-based Chinese historian Wang Ke (2013, 2015) has drawn some attention to such an approach, there is still much room to consider Japanese explorations from the perspective of Russians and local Muslims. Recently, Terayama (2015) has utilized Soviet archives to study Japanese intelligence activities in Xinjiang during the 1930s, thus enhancing our knowledge of how these activities influenced Soviet views of Xinjiang.<\/p>\n<p>Against a backdrop of acute Russian and British interest in the geopolitical fate of Xinjiang, Tibet, and Russian Turkestan, it is important to consider when, where, and how the Japanese responded to the British and Russian agendas in Central Asia. What did the Japanese think about Xinjiang? In order to answer this question, we must first understand the chief political developments in Xinjiang during the late nineteenth century as well as how the interests of Russia, Britain, the Qing, and local Muslims influenced these developments.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Japan and the &#8220;Ili Crisis&#8221;<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>From 1871 to 1881, Russia took advantage of the destabilization of the region brought about by the Yaqub Beg interregnum to occupy the northern regions of Xinjiang, in a development known as the \u201cIli Crisis\u201d (Noda 2010). What were the implications of the Russian occupation of the Ili region for Japan? The Japanese diplomat Nishi Tokujir\u014d, one of the first Japanese to visit Central Asia, has left a record of a report that he wrote during this time when he passed through the region. In \u201cA Description of Central Asia\u201d (<em>Ch\u016b-ajia kiji<\/em> \u4e2d\u4e9e\u7d30\u4e9e\u8a18\u4e8b), Nishi noted \u201cthe conflict around Ili\u201d and what he \u201cwitnessed regarding military affairs\u201d (Nishi 1886: pt. 4, supplement). The political motivation for his journey to Central Asia can be confirmed by a document within the Japanese Foreign Ministry dated to June 1880, which explains that his journey \u201cwas made for exploring local places in light of the negotiation on the region between Russia and the Qing\u201d (Japan Center for Asian Historical Records, hereafter JACAR: A\u200b0\u200b7\u200b0\u200b6\u200b0\u200b5\u200b8\u200b9\u200b6\u200b0\u200b0).<sup>3<\/sup> This is a reference to the discussions then ongoing between St. Petersburg and Beijing on the return of the occupied Ili region. Nishi also mentioned that he intended to further investigate the Qing\u2019s military power in Xinjiang by visiting Jinghe \u7cbe\u6cb3, a town further east of Ili (Nishi 1886: pt. 3, 225).<\/p>\n<p>Japanese interest in the results of the negotiations regarding the Russian return of Ili to the Qing was born out of a concern for how the results of these negotiations might impact Japanese discussions with the Qing on the fate of the Ryukyu islands and Taiwan. Nishi\u2019s report includes an entire section devoted to a \u201cDiscussion on Ili.\u201d In hindsight, it is clear that the Japanese government believed that the conflict between the Russian and Qing governments over Ili could exert a positive influence on Japan\u2019s diplomatic negotiations with Beijing regarding the Ryukyus (Yamashiro 2015). On June 27, 1881, in a telegram to Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi, the Japanese consul at Tianjin Takezoe Shinichiro revealed Tokyo\u2019s intention to exploit the possibility of a Sino-Russian war for its own purposes (JACAR: B\u200b0\u200b3\u200b0\u200b4\u200b1\u200b1\u200b4\u200b9\u200b8\u200b0\u200b0).<\/p>\n<p>Russia was very concerned about the Japanese attitude toward the Qing, and attempted to collect information about Japan\u2019s posture toward Beijing through the Russian legation in Tokyo (Russian State Military History Archive, hereafter RGVIA: f. 451, op. 1, d. 2, l. 11). It was in fact the Russians who had helped to facilitate Nishi\u2019s passage through Ili in the first place. Their eagerness to do so might be explained by the Russian expectation that Japan might side with Russia in the dispute in spite of Tokyo\u2019s avowed policy of neutrality (JACAR: B03041149200).<\/p>\n<p>Nishi\u2019s exploration of northern Xinjiang amid the backdrop of the Ili Crisis represents the earliest Japanese attempt to procure firsthand intelligence regarding Russian political intentions in Central Asia. The second attempt to do so came in 1889, when a local branch of the <em>Rakuzen-d\u014d<\/em> drugstore active in Hankou dispatched Ura Keiichi \u6d66\u656c\u4e00 to Xinjiang with the intent of helping local Muslims resist Russian intrusions. Ura, however, never made it to Xinjiang, having lost his way en route (Kuzuu 1933: 382\u201395).<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">The First Professional Agents from Japan<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>It was only two decades later, after the Russo-Japanese war (1904\u20135), that Tokyo began to adopt a proactive and aggressive strategy for collecting firsthand intelligence regarding Russian designs on Xinjiang. One of the most pressing items on Japan\u2019s agenda was to learn as much as possible about Russia\u2019s plans to construct a railway into Xinjiang.<sup>4<\/sup> The intelligence agents involved in these early operations included Hatano Y\u014dsaku \u6ce2\u591a\u91ce\u990a\u4f5c, Hayashide Kenjir\u014d \u6797\u51fa\u8ce2\u6b21\u90de, Sakurai Yoshitaka \u6afb\u4e95\u597d\u5b5d, Kusa Masakichi \u8349\u653f\u5409, and Miura Minoru \u4e09\u6d66\u7a14, all of who graduated from the East Asia Common Culture Academy (<em>T\u014da D\u014dbun Shoin<\/em> \u6771\u4e9c\u540c\u6587\u66f8\u9662) school in Shanghai, where they trained for careers in business and government service related to China.<sup>5<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>In May 1905, as a Japanese victory in the war against Russia seemed increasingly likely, all five men were dispatched by the Japanese Foreign Ministry to strategically important locales in the northwestern regions of the Qing Empire. As Foreign Minister Komura Jutar\u014d \u5c0f\u6751\u58fd\u592a\u90de wrote to Minister Uchida Yasuya, the Japanese minister in Beijing, on May 9, \u201cthese five figures will be dispatched for the investigation of Russian activities on the periphery of China\u201d (JACAR: B03050330 700). These destinations included Urga, Uliyasutai, and Khobdo in Outer Mongolia (Miura, Kusa, and Sakurai, respectively); the northwestern Qing province of Gansu (Hatano); and the Ili region in Xinjiang (Hayashide). The very next year, the Army General Staff also sent Hino Tsutomu \u65e5\u91ce\u5f3a, a military officer who traveled with an attendant, Uehara Taichi \u4e0a\u539f\u591a\u5e02, to Xinjiang.<sup>6<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>In his memoir, Hayashide recalled the inspiration for these missions as stemming from the \u201cresult of deliberations\u201d between Japanese and British diplomats. \u201cEngland would dispatch agents from India up to Kashgar in southern Xinjiang,\u201d he later wrote, \u201cwhile Japan would send agents to Ili, Khobdo, Uliyasutai, and Urga to conduct research on the boundary zones between Outer Mongolia and Xinjiang,\u201d most of which was then under Russian influence (Hayashide 1938: 172\u201373). The five men sent by the Foreign Ministry were supported by a confidential fund under Minister Komura Jutar\u014d\u2019s oversight.<\/p>\n<p>These Japanese intelligence agents did not go unnoticed by the Russians, who had long kept close tabs on Japanese travelers through Siberia. For instance, when Fukushima Yasumasa \u798f\u5cf6\u5b89\u6b63 made his famous journey through Siberia in 1892, members of the General Staff of the Russian military shadowed him and submitted reports on his activities. Fourteen years later, similar reports were compiled on the movements of Japanese military agents Hirayama Haruhisa \u5e73\u5c71\u6cbb\u4e45 and Nagase H\u014dsuke \u9577\u702c\u9cf3\u8f14, who entered West Siberia in 1906 (Grekov 2000: 75). In China, Japanese travelers were followed not only by Russian military attach\u00e9s resident in all the major cities, but also by the four Russian consuls stationed in Xinjiang. No matter where the Japanese went, it seemed, the Russians were watching them.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_570\" style=\"width: 917px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-570\" class=\"wp-image-570 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"907\" height=\"571\" srcset=\"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy.jpg 907w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy-300x189.jpg 300w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy-768x483.jpg 768w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy-695x438.jpg 695w, https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/984\/2019\/03\/B03050331400_B03050331400.b10111.1-0724.00000322-48-copy-238x150.jpg 238w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 907px) 100vw, 907px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-570\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fig. 1. A map of Tarbagatai (Tacheng) drawn by Hayashide Kenjir\u014d during his travels through northern Xinjiang (JACAR B03050331400).<\/p><\/div>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Russian Reports on Japanese Spies in Xinjiang<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>During and after the Russo-Japanese War in 1904\u20135, Russian officials evinced an increasing anxiety regarding Japanese espionage in Xinjiang. For instance, in 1902, when the Buddhist monk and scholar \u014ctani K\u014dzui \u5927\u8c37\u5149\u745e undertook the first Japanese archaeological expedition to Xinjiang, entering the province via Russian Turkestan, Russian authorities and consuls stationed along his route reported closely on his activities, on the assumption that his expedition was a pretext for espionage (Shirasu 2012: 27). Later, Hatano Y\u014dsaku, after completing his reconnaissance of Gansu, reached Urumchi and reported on Russian surveillance of his movements (JACAR: B03050330800).<\/p>\n<p>The majority of Russian archival documents, however, concern Hayashide Kenjir\u014d, who was sent by the Japanese Foreign Ministry in July 1905 to collect intelligence throughout Xinjiang. From the moment he left Beijing, Hayashide was closely watched by the Russians. On June 6, 1905, a telegram from Leonid Davydov, a member of the governing board of the Russo-Chinese Bank in Beijing, instructed Russian officials to keep an eye on the Japanese \u201cspy\u201d Hayashide, whose ultimate destination of Xinjiang was already known (Osmanov 2005: 410). Just one week later, on June 13, a Russian report from the General Staff office informed the commander of the Turkestan Military District that Hayashide was being sent to Xinjiang for the purpose of organizing a network of spies, distributing Japanese propaganda, and compiling intelligence on Xinjiang [<strong>Fig. 1<\/strong>]. On June 20, the military governor of Semirech\u2019e responded to this report by issuing orders to arrest Hayashide upon his arrival in Russian Turkestan (TsGA RK: f. 46, op. 1, d. 116, ll. 48\u201349).<\/p>\n<p>These telegrams leave little doubt that Russia was intent on eliminating the threat of Japanese espionage in Xinjiang. Other archival documents from this same period\u2014June to September 1905\u2014reveal Russian suspicions regarding purported Japanese officials in Tarbagatai (Tacheng) (RGVIA: f. 661, d. 76, l. 226ob.) and a Japanese military instructor in Urumchi (RGVIA: f. 661, d. 67, l. 248). A few years later, in 1908, the Russian consul in Urumchi submitted a comprehensive report to the headquarters of the Omsk Military District on Hayashide\u2019s journey to Tarbagatai, during which time he was accompanied by Major Hino. This report included details on the extensive photographic activity undertaken by the two men along the Qing-Russian border (RGVIA: f. 2000\/c, op. 15, d. 28, l.69\u201371). The photographic activities of Sakurai Yoshitaka in Khobdo, situated along the northwestern border between Outer Mongolia and Xinjiang, also caught the attention of Russian consuls. According to the Russian consul at Uliyasutai, who met Sakurai, Sakurai tried to pass himself off as a Japanese merchant (RGVIA: f. 2000\/c, op. 15, d. 28, l. 13).<\/p>\n<p>The report of Major Hino Tsutomu, one of only two Japanese agents (along with Uehara) to visit southern Xinjiang, has yet to turn up in the Japanese archives.<sup>7<\/sup> There are, however, other sources capable of shedding light on his intelligence activities in Xinjiang, most of them from a Russian perspective. The Finnish military officer Carl Gustav Mannerheim, who accompanied Paul Pelliot\u2019s archaeological expedition to Xinjiang in 1906\u20138 and gathered intelligence for Russia along the way, made a special effort to track Hino\u2019s movements (Mannergeim 1909: 4).<sup>8<\/sup> Because Hino met S. Fedorov, the Russian consul of Ili who also helped facilitate Mannerheim\u2019s travels through Xinjiang, Mannerheim had little trouble finding Hino. On May 31, 1907, Mannerheim noted the appearance, \u201cjust in front of me, of Japanese Major Hino with several Chinese officials, conducting photographic research, [and] advancing via the camp of the [Torghut] Khan\u201d (Mannergeim 1909: 28).<\/p>\n<p>For Mannerheim and the Russians, Hino\u2019s appearance in Xinjiang confirmed the spread of Japanese influence into Xinjiang. As a result, when Mannerheim learned of the pro-Japanese attitude of Changgeng \u9577\u5e9a, the Qing military governor of Ili, he immediately blamed Hino (Mannergeim 1909: 33), who was on good terms with Changgeng (Hino 1973: pt. 1, 185). Mannerheim repeatedly emphasized the spread of the Japanese influence into northwestern China during the years of his expedition, connecting Hino\u2019s activities to the dispatch of Japanese teachers in inner China. In the end, Mannerheim concluded that the Japanese military was increasing its power in the region (Mannergeim 1909: 156\u201358). The Russian consul in Urumchi offered more specific details on the nature of this power. On October 5, 1908, the consul informed the Russian legation in Beijing that Hino had met and exchanged name cards with Sa\u2018id Muhammad al-\u2018As\u0101l\u012b, a Muslim intellectual who had travelled to Xinjiang from British India (RGVIA: f. 2000\/c, op. 15, d. 28, l. 104).<sup>9<\/sup> As Russian military officer A. Snesarev (1907) warned, Japan was trying to increase its knowledge of Islam and to make political use of Muslims in Asia.<\/p>\n<p>Japanese intelligence activities were not confined to Xinjiang. In 1908, Hamaomote Matasuke \u6ff1\u9762\u53c8\u52a9, a military attach\u00e9 of the Japanese legation in Russia operating under the support of the Army General Staff, traveled to the Bukharan Emirate, then under loose Russian control. Though Hamaomote\u2019s official Japanese report has not yet been found, Russian archives show that his movements, along with those of other Japanese military attach\u00e9s, were closely monitored throughout Central Asia (RGVIA: f. 2000\/c, op. 15, d. 29, l. 96 and 105). Japan also tried to initiate contact with the Dalai Lama in Tibet. Teramoto Enga \u5bfa\u672c\u5a49\u96c5, a priest of Higashi Hongan-ji Temple who was supported by General Fukushima (Esenbel 2018), maintained frequent communications with the Dalai Lama (Teramoto 1974). Teramoto also helped to facilitate a meeting between the Dalai Lama and Hatano Y\u014dsaku, the East Asian Common Culture Academy graduate who had undertaken the mission to Gansu. These efforts prove that the Japanese government, or at least the Army General Staff, maintained a high level of interest in the political fate not only of Xinjiang, Outer Mongolia, and the inner Chinese provinces, but of Tibet as well.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Japanese Intelligence Reports on Xinjiang<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>After their return from the Qing borderlands, the five Japanese graduates of the East Asian Common Culture Academy submitted detailed reports of their travels to the Foreign Ministry\u2019s Political Affairs Bureau. Printed copies of these reports were also distributed to the Military Ministry as well (JACAR: C03022995500). Of the five reports, those of Kusa Masakichi, Miura Minoru, and Sakurai Yoshitaka are devoted chiefly to the affairs of Outer Mongolia. By contrast, the reports of Hatano Yosaku and Hayashide Kenjiro go into great detail about Xinjiang. While Hatano spent most of his time in Urumchi, Hayashide covered much more ground en route to the northern town of Tarbagatai. As a result, Hayashide\u2019s report contains a greater wealth of detail. The reports of both men, however, offer a fascinating glimpse into Japanese assessments of the Russian presence in Xinjiang.<\/p>\n<p>Both Hayashide and Hatano noted the deep involvement of the Russian consulates in Kashgar, Urumchi, Ili, and Tarbagatai in the collection of intelligence regarding local affairs and the activities of foreign agents in Xinjiang (Hatano 1907: 77\u201378; Hayashide 1907: 11). Hayashide even went so far as to comment upon \u201cRussia\u2019s management of Xinjiang\u201d (Hayashide 1907: 67). Of particular interest to both men was the role played by the Russian consulates in the cross-border trade of expatriate Muslims from Russian Turkestan (Hatano 1907: 66\u201367). They made a careful distinction between the Turkic-speaking Muslim subjects of the Qing Empire\u2014known today as Uyghurs but referred to as <em>chantou<\/em> \u7e8f\u982d, or \u201cTurban Heads,\u201d by the Chinese of the day\u2014and the non-Slavic Turkic-speaking Muslim subjects of the Russian empire, whom the Japanese reports identified as coming from Tashkent or Andijan (Hayashide 1907: 21, 54). They also noted the presence of Russian Tatars, who were called \u201cNogai\u201d in Xinjiang.<sup>10<\/sup> Neither Hayashide nor Hatano failed to comment upon the tendency of the Russian consuls to lobby on behalf of Russian Muslims in Xinjiang, often to the detriment of Qing economic interests.<\/p>\n<p>Both reports also made a careful distinction between Chinese-speaking Muslims (Hui or \u201cTungans\u201d) and Turkic-speaking Muslims. Hatano described the latter as \u201cTurkestan people, who separately belonged to Russia and Qing\u201d (Hatano 1907: 40\u201341). Nevertheless, Hatano still regarded the Russian Turkic-speaking Muslims as \u201csuperior\u201d to the Turkic-speaking Muslim subjects of the Qing. Neither group, however, was seen as acting in concert with the Hui, to whom was ascribed the chief role in the Muslim rebellions of the 1860s.<\/p>\n<p>Hatano and Hayashide also evinced anxiety regarding the extension of Russia\u2019s communications and transportation infrastructure into Xinjiang. For instance, the Russians already operated both a postal and telegram service to several major cities in the province (Hatano 1907: 30\u201331; Hayashide 1907: 36). As for the railway, Hatano noted a stark contrast in speed of construction: whereas the Russians had already completed a trunk line from Semipalatinsk to Tashkent, Qing plans for a railway from Ili to Lanzhou still existed on paper only. Hayashide worried that Russian railroads would one day dominate Xinjiang (Hayashide 1907: 74).<sup>11<\/sup> As the situation in Manchuria could well attest, the construction of railways in China by foreign powers carried great significance for the development of outside influence in the region.<\/p>\n<p>Based on his travels through Xinjiang, Hayashide proposed that Japan take a proactive approach to countering Russian influence in Xinjiang by offering \u201cprotection\u201d for the Qing. \u201cAfter the Russo-Japanese War, Russian activities [to Xinjiang] completely changed,\u201d he wrote. \u201cIf the Japanese are to be a guardian for the Qing, then we should tighten the connection between Xinjiang and Japan\u201d (Hayashide 1907: 71\u201375).<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Attitudes of the Local Muslims<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>How did the people of Xinjiang view the specter of Japanese influence in their land? According to Hino, a Muslim merchant in Tarbagatai who held Russian nationality welcomed his presence, commented upon the shortcomings of Russia, and praised the prowess of Japan (Hino 1973: pt. 2, 171). The other Japanese explorers also observed favorable attitudes toward Japan, mostly as a result of its victory over Russia in the 1904\u20135 war (Hatano 1907: 48\u201350; JACAR: B03050330800; see also Hayashide 1907: 59). By contrast, Mannerheim reported a different impression. \u201cI couldn\u2019t find any sympathy [of the local people] with the Japanese, which I had heard of before my departure, except for the rare case of an obvious Japonophile\u201d (Mannergeim 1909: 12).<\/p>\n<p>Another perspective on Japan can be glimpsed in the writings of Qurbanghali, a Tatar mullah at Tarbaghatai. In his \u201cHistories of the Five Easterns\u201d (<em>Tav\u0101r\u012bkh-i khamsa-yi sharq\u012b<\/em>), published in 1910, Qurbanghali paid much attention to Japan\u2019s swift development after the Meiji restoration (Noda 2016: 50\u201353). In particular, he noted the goodwill mission of the Ottoman frigate <em>Ertu\u011frul<\/em>, which docked in Japan for three months in 1889\u201390 before its loss at sea\u2014and subsequent Japanese rescue efforts\u2014on its return voyage to Istanbul (Qurb\u0101n \u2018al\u012b 1910: 700). Though much of his information on Japan was derived from secondary information culled from periodicals published in Russia (such as <em>Terjuman<\/em>), the fact that such information found its way into educated circles in Xinjiang at all is worthy of note. It seems that the goodwill voyage and wreck of <em>Ertu\u011frul<\/em> struck a particular chord with some Muslims in Xinjiang. Hino, too, made note of favorable impressions of Japan in Xinjiang that were tendered in the context of the <em>Ertu\u011frul<\/em> mission to Tokyo (Hino 1973: pt. 2, 119).<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Conclusion<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The intelligence operations conducted by Japanese agents along the non-Han peripheries of the Qing Empire in the first decade of the twentieth century came at a pivotal time in Japan\u2019s expansion onto the Asian mainland. Undertaken in the final months of the Russo-Japanese War and at the same time as the establishment of a \u201cprotectorate\u201d over Korea, these missions ushered in some of the first contacts between Japan and the Muslim peoples of Central Asia. The chief organizational sponsors of these operations were the Japanese Foreign Ministry and the Army General Staff.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that most of the lands covered by these missions were still under Qing suzerainty, the reports submitted by Japanese spies leave no doubt that St. Petersburg, not Beijing, weighed most heavily on the minds of Japanese officials. For example, 1912 report, \u201cRussian management of Manchuria-Mongolia and Xinjiang\u201d (<em>Man-m\u014d oyobi shinky\u014d ni taisuru rokoku no keiei<\/em> \u6e80\u8499\u53ca\u65b0\u7586\u30cb\u5c0d\u30b9\u30eb\u9732\u570b\u30ce\u7d93\u71df) proposed further intelligence operations not only for Xinjiang, but for Russian Turkestan as well (JACAR: B\u200b0\u200b3\u200b0\u200b3\u200b0\u200b4\u200b1\u200b4\u200b5\u200b0\u200b0). This proposal was followed six years later in 1918 by the formal establishment of a Japanese intelligence organ devoted to Xinjiang (JACAR: C03022436400; see also Fang 2000; Wang 2015). Later intelligence operations undertaken by Japanese agents in the 1930s are the direct descendants of these early initiatives. As Terayama (2015) has noted, however, Japanese intelligence activities were not successful in evading the watchful eyes of the Russians, whose counterintelligence efforts closely tracked their every move.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most significant results of these missions was the compilation of firsthand reports regarding the Muslim peoples of Central Asia for Japanese officials in Tokyo, who began to express an interest in various pan-Islamic discourses and how such discourses might be utilized to Japan\u2019s advantage. This interest was further stimulated in 1909, when Abd\u00fcrre\u015fid Ibrahim, described by the above mentioned Nakakuki as \u201ca Tatar patriot,\u201d visited Japan. Ibrahim\u2019s speeches and articles were subsequently published in the journal Japan and the Japanese (<em>Nihon oyobi Nihonjin<\/em> \u65e5\u672c\u53ca\u65e5\u672c\u4eba) (Komatsu 2018).<\/p>\n<p>One measure of the interest Ibrahim\u2019s visit seems to have stimulated in Japanese policymaking circles can be glimpsed in the research of Nakakuki Nobuchika \u4e2d\u4e45\u559c\u4fe1\u5468, a reporter for the <em>Yangtze River News Agency<\/em> (<em>Y\u014dsukou ts\u016bshinsha<\/em> \u63da\u5b50\u6c5f\u901a\u4fe1\u793e) in Hankou. In 1910, Nakakuki, whose article was published in the same journal that printed Ibrahim\u2019s speeches, was commissioned by the Foreign Ministry to conduct research on the Hui Muslims of Henan Province.<sup>12<\/sup> The resulting report, \u201cMuslims in Henan\u201d (<em>Kanan no kaiky\u014dto<\/em> \u6cb3\u5357\u306e\u56de\u6559\u5f92), made reference to Ibrahim\u2019s writings (JACAR: B12081600100; B12081600200).<\/p>\n<p>Nakakuki went one step further, however, declaring that Muslims\u2014both Turkic and Hui\u2014could serve as a possible trigger for future political disturbances in China. According to Nakakuki, \u201cthe den of the Muslims in all of China\u201d was Ili, where both Russians and Chinese were struggling to assert political control. In another report, Nakakuki argued that it was imperative for Japan to facilitate connections between Muslims on the Russian and Chinese sides of the border, with the ultimate goal of fomenting broader opposition to the Russian presence in Central Asia (JACAR: B12081600100). Here we can see an early iteration of Japan\u2019s own pan-Asian discourse, which was formulated not only in the context of a Sino-Japanese rivalry, but also in the context of a Russo-Japanese rivalry for the hearts and minds of Muslims.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">About the Author<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Jin Noda \u91ce\u7530\u4ec1<\/strong> is an associate professor in the Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa at Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Japan. He specializes in research on the history of international relations in Central Asia, with particular emphasis on Russo-Qing relations. He is the author of <em>The Kazakh Khanates between the Russian and Qing Empires: Central Eurasian International Relations during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries<\/em> (Leiden: Brill, 2016). E-mail: &lt;nodajin@aa.tufs.ac.jp&gt;.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">References<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><strong>Bodde 1946<\/strong><br \/>\nDerk Bodde. \u201cJapan and the Muslims of China.\u201d <em>Far Eastern Survey<\/em> 5, no. 20 (1946): 311\u201313.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Esenbel 2018<\/strong><br \/>\nSel\u00e7uk Esenbel. \u201cFukushima Yasumasa and Utsunomiya Tar\u014d on the Edge of the Silk Road: Pan-Asian Visions and the Network of Military Intelligence from the Ottoman and Qajar Realms into Central Asia.\u201d In: S. Esenbel, ed., <em>Japan on the Silk Road: Encounters and Perspectives of Politics and Culture in Eurasia<\/em>, Leiden: Brill, 2018: 87\u2013117.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Fang 2000<\/strong><br \/>\nFang Jianchang \u623f\u5efa\u660c. \u201cJindai riben shentou Xinjiang shulun\u201d \u8fd1\u4ee3\u65e5\u672c\u6e17\u900f\u65b0\u7586\u8ff0\u8bba [On the modern Japanese invasion of Xinjiang]. <em>Xiyu yanjiu<\/em> \u897f\u57df\u7814\u7a76 (2000), No. 4: 46\u201353.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Fujita 2000<\/strong><br \/>\nFujita Yoshihisa \u85e4\u7530\u4f73\u4e45. <em>T\u014da D\u014dbun Shoin ch\u016bgoku dairyok\u014dki no kenky\u016b<\/em> \u6771\u4e9e\u540c\u6587\u66f8\u9662\u4e2d\u570b\u5927\u8abf\u67e5\u65c5\u884c\u306e\u7814\u7a76 [A Study of Toa Dobun Shoin\u2019s great journeys in China]. Tokyo: Taimeid\u014d, 2000.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Grekov 2000<\/strong><br \/>\nN. Grekov. <em>Russkaia kontrrazvedka v 1905\u20131917 gg.: shpionomaniia i real\u2019nye problem<\/em> [Russian counterintelligence during 1905\u00ad\u20131917: the spy mania and real problems]. Moscow: Moskovskii obshchestvennyi nauchnyi fond, 2000.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Hatano 1907<\/strong><br \/>\nHatano Y\u014dsaku \u6ce2\u591a\u91ce\u990a\u4f5c. <em>Shinky\u014d shisatsu fukumeisho<\/em> \u65b0\u7586\u8996\u5bdf\u5fa9\u547d\u66f8 [Report of the investigation in Xinjiang]. Tokyo: Political Affairs Bureau of Foreign Ministry, 1907. In: JACAR: B03050331500.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Hayashide 1907<\/strong><br \/>\nHayashide Kenjir\u014d \u6797\u51fa\u8ce2\u6b21\u90de. <em>Shinkoku shinky\u014dsh\u014d iri chih\u014d shisatsu fukumeisho<\/em> \u6e05\u570b\u65b0\u7586\u7701\u4f0a\u7281\u5730\u65b9\u8996\u5bdf\u5fa9\u547d\u66f8 [Report of the investigation on the Ili region in Qing\u2019s Xinjiang province]. Tokyo: Political Affairs Bureau of Foreign Ministry, 1907. In: JACAR: B03050331600 and B03050331700.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Hayashide 1938<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201c30nen mae ni okeru \u2018ili\u2019k\u014d no kaiko\u201d [Memory of a journey to Ili 30 years ago]. <em>Shina<\/em> 29, no. 6 (1938): 172\u201373.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Hino 1973<\/strong><br \/>\nHino Tsutomu \u65e5\u91ce\u5f3a. <em>Iri kik\u014d<\/em> \u4f0a\u7281\u7d00\u884c [The journey to Ili]. Tokyo: Fuy\u014d shob\u014d, 1973 [1909]).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Komatsu 2018<\/strong><br \/>\nKomatsu Hisao. \u201cAbdurreshid Ibrahim and Japanese Approaches to Central Asia.\u201d In: S. Esenbel, ed., <em>Japan on the Silk Road: Encounters and Perspectives of Politics and Culture in Eurasia<\/em>, Leiden: Brill, 2018: 145\u201354.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kuzuu 1933<\/strong><br \/>\nKuzuu Yoshihisa \u845b\u751f\u80fd\u4e45. <em>T\u014da senkaku shishi kiden<\/em> \u6771\u4e9e\u5148\u89ba\u5fd7\u58eb\u8a18\u50b3 [Biographical Memoirs of Pioneer Patriots in Eastern Asia]. Vol. 1. Tokyo: Kokuryukai Shuppanbu, 1933.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kuzuu 1936<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. <em>T\u014da senkaku shishi kiden<\/em> \u6771\u4e9e\u5148\u89ba\u5fd7\u58eb\u8a18\u50b3 [Biographical Memoirs of Pioneer Patriots in Eastern Asia]. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Kokuryukai Shuppanbu, 1936.<\/p>\n<p><strong>JACAR<\/strong><br \/>\nJapan Center for Asian Historical Records (Ajia rekishi shiry\u014d sent\u0101 \u30a2\u30b8\u30a2\u6b74\u53f2\u8cc7\u6599\u30bb\u30f3\u30bf\u30fc). Available online: http:\/\/www.jacar.go.jp<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mori and Toktoh 2010<\/strong><br \/>\nMori Hisao \u68ee\u4e45\u7537 and Uljei Toktoh \u30a6\u30eb\u30b8\u30c8\u30af\u30c8\u30d5. \u201cT\u014da d\u014dbun shoin no naimoko chosa ryoko\u201d \u6771\u4e9c\u540c\u6587\u66f8\u9662\u306e\u5185\u8499\u53e4\u8abf\u67fb\u65c5\u884c [Research tours of Toa Dobun Shoin College in Inner Mongolia]. <em>Aichi Daigaku Kokusai mondai kenky\u016bsho kiy\u014d<\/em> (2010), No. 136: 141\u201365.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mannergeim 1909<\/strong><br \/>\nKarl Gustav Mannergeim. \u201cPredvaritel\u2019nyi otchet o poezdke, predpriniatoi po Vysochaishemu poveleniiu cherez Kitaiskii Turkestan i severnye pro-vintsii Kitaia v g. Pekin v 1906\u20137 i 8 gg\u201d [Preliminary report on the trip undertaken by imperial order through Chinese Turkestan and the northern provinces of China to Beijing in 1906\u20137 and 1908] <em>Sbornik geograficheskikh, topograficheskikh I statisticheskikh materialov po Azii<\/em> LXXXI (1909): 81\u2013135.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Nishi 1886<\/strong><br \/>\nNishi Tokujir\u014d \u897f\u5fb7\u4e8c\u90ce. <em>Ch\u016b ajia kiji<\/em> \u4e2d\u4e9e\u7d30\u4e9e\u8a18\u4e8b [Description of Central Asia]. Tokyo: Rikugun bunko, 1886.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Noda 2010<\/strong><br \/>\nNoda Jin. \u201cReconsidering the Ili Crisis: The Ili region under the Russian Rule (1871-1881).\u201d In: M. Watanabe and J. Kubota, eds., <em>Reconceptualizing Cultural and Environmental Change in Central Asia: An Historical Perspective on the Future<\/em>, Kyoto: RIHN, 2010: 163\u201397.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Noda 2016<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. <em>The Kazakh Khanates between the Russian and Qing empires: Central Eurasian International Relations during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries<\/em>. Leiden: Brill, 2016.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Obukhov 2016<\/strong><br \/>\nVadim G. Obukhov. <em>Bitva za Belovod\u2019e: Bol\u2019shaia Igra nachinaetsia<\/em> [The battle for the Kingdom of Opona: the Great Game begins]. Moscow: Kraft, 2016.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u014csato 2013<\/strong><br \/>\n\u014csato Hiroaki \u5927\u91cc\u6d69\u79cb, ed. \u201cMunakata Kotar\u014d nikki, Meiji 41\u201342 nen\u201d \u5b97\u65b9\u5c0f\u592a\u90ce\u65e5\u8a18, \u660e\u6cbb41\u201342\u5e74 [The diary of Munakata Kotaro: 1908\u20131909]. <em>Jinbungaku kenky\u016bsyoh\u014d<\/em> (2013), No. 50: 115\u201369.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Osmanov 2005<\/strong><br \/>\nE.M. Osmanov. <em>Iz istorii russko-iaponskoi voiny 1904\u201305 gg.: sbornik materialov k 100-letiiu so dnia okonchaniia voiny<\/em> [From the history of the Russo-Japanese war in 1904\u201305: collection of materials from the 100 years since the end of the war]. St. Petersburg: S-Peterburgskogo universiteta, 2005.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Qurb\u0101n \u2018al\u012b 1910<\/strong><br \/>\nQurb\u0101n \u2018al\u012b Kh\u0101lid\u012b. <em>Tav\u0101r\u012bkh-i khamsa-yi sharq\u012b<\/em> [Histories of the Five Easterns]. Qaz\u0101n, 1910.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Reynolds 1986<\/strong><br \/>\nDouglas R. Reynolds. \u201cChinese Area Studies in Prewar China: Japan\u2019s T\u014da D\u014dbun Shoin in Shanghai, 1900\u20131945.\u201d <em>Journal of Asian Studies<\/em> 45, no. 5 (1986): 945\u201370.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Reynolds 1989<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cTraining Young China Hands: T\u014da D\u014dbun Shoin and Its Precursors, 1886-1945.\u201d In: Peter Duus et al., eds., <em>The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895-1937<\/em>, Princeton: Princeton University press, 1989: 210\u201371.<\/p>\n<p><strong>RGVIA<\/strong><br \/>\nRossiiskii gosudarstvennyi voenno-istoricheskii arkhiv [Russian State Military History Archive]. Moscow.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Shirasu 2012<\/strong><br \/>\nShirasu J\u014dshin \u767d\u9808\u6de8\u771e. <em>\u014ctani tankentai kenky\u016b no aratana chihei: Ajia k\u014diki ch\u014dsa katsud\u014d to gaimush\u014d gaik\u014d kiroku<\/em> \u5927\u8c37\u63a2\u691c\u968a\u7814\u7a76\u306e\u65b0\u305f\u306a\u5730\u5e73: \u30a2\u30b8\u30a2\u5e83\u57df\u8abf\u67fb\u6d3b\u52d5\u3068\u5916\u52d9\u7701\u5916\u4ea4\u8a18\u9332 [New research on Otani\u2019s explorations: Japan\u2019s wide-area investigation in Asia and the diplomatic record of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]. Tokyo: Bensei shuppan, 2012.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Smirnov 2007<\/strong><br \/>\nA.S. Smirnov. \u201cBaron Mannergeim vypolnil razvedzadanie rossiiskogo General\u2019nogo shtaba. 1906\u20131908 gg.\u201d [Baron Mannerheim fulfilled the reconnaissance works of the Russian General Staff Office in 1906\u201308]. <em>Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal<\/em> 2 (2007): 24\u201327.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Snesarev 1907<\/strong><br \/>\nA.E. Snesarev. \u201cIslam, kak politicheskoe orudie v rukakh anglichan, germantsev i iapontsev\u201d [Islam as a political way in the hands of the English, German, and Japanese]. <em>Zakaspiiskoe obozrenie<\/em> 2 (1907): 66\u201369.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Teramoto 1974<\/strong><br \/>\nTeramoto Enga \u5bfa\u672c\u5a49\u96c5. <em>Z\u014d-M\u014d tabinikki<\/em> \u85cf\u8499\u65c5\u65e5\u8a18 [Travelogue of Tibet and Mongolia]. Tokyo: Fuy\u014d Shob\u014d, 1974.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Terayama 2015<\/strong><br \/>\nTerayama Ky\u014dsuke \u5bfa\u5c71\u606d\u8f14. <em>Sut\u0101rin to Shinky\u014d: 1931\u20131949<\/em> \u65b0\u7586\u3068\u30b9\u30bf\u30fc\u30ea\u30f3: 1931\u20131949 [Stalin and Xinjiang, 1931\u201349]. Tokyo: Shakai hy\u014dron sha, 2015.<\/p>\n<p><strong>TsGA RK<\/strong><br \/>\nTsentral\u2019nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Respubliki Kazakhstan [Central state archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan]. Almaty.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Wang 2013<\/strong><br \/>\nWang Ke \u738b\u67ef. <em>Dong Tujuesitan duli yundong: 1930 niandai zhi 1940 niandai<\/em> \u4e1c\u7a81\u53a5\u65af\u5766\u72ec\u7acb\u8fd0\u52a8\uff1a1930\u5e74\u4ee3\u81f31940\u5e74\u4ee3 [East Turkestan independence movement: 1930s to 1940s]. Hong Kong: Zhongwen daxue chubanshe, 2013.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Wang 2015<\/strong><br \/>\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. <em>Minzu zhuyi yu jindai zhongri guanxi: \u201cminzu guojia\u201d \u201cbianjiang\u201d yu lishi renshi<\/em> \u6c11\u65cf\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e0e\u8fd1\u4ee3\u4e2d\u65e5\u5173\u7cfb\uff1a\u300a\u6c11\u65cf\u56fd\u5bb6\u300b\u300a\u8fb9\u7586\u300b\u4e0e\u5386\u53f2\u8ba4\u8bc6 [Nationalism and modern Sino-Japanese relations: nation state, borderland, and historical knowledge]. Hong Kong: Zhongwen daxue chubanshe, 2015.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yamashiro 2015<\/strong><br \/>\nYamashiro Tomofumi \u5c71\u57ce\u667a\u53f2. \u201c1870 nendai ni okeru nissin kanno gaik\u014d anken toshiteno ry\u016bky\u016b kizoku mondai\u201d 1870\u5e74\u4ee3\u306b\u304a\u3051\u308b\u65e5\u6e05\u9593\u306e\u5916\u4ea4\u6848\u4ef6\u3068\u3057\u3066\u306e\u7409\u7403\u5e30\u5c5e\u554f\u984c [The diplomatic issue of Ryukyu attribution between Japan and China in the 1870s]. <em>Kenky\u016b nenp\u014d shakai kagaku kenky\u016b<\/em> \u7814\u7a76\u5e74\u5831\u793e\u4f1a\u79d1\u5b66\u7814\u7a76 (Yamanashigakuin University)] (2015), No. 35: 95\u2013125.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yamazaki 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nYamazaki (Unno) Noriko. \u201cAbd\u00fcrre\u015fid \u0130brahim\u2019s journey to China: Muslim communities in the late Qing as seen by a Russian-Tatar intellectual.\u201d <em>Central Asian Survey<\/em> 33, no. 3 (2014): 405-20.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Yang and Chai 2014<\/strong><br \/>\nYang Wenjiong \u6768\u6587\u70af and Chai Yalin \u67f4\u4e9a\u6797. \u201cQingmo zhi minguo shiqi riben zai woguo xinjiangde yinmou huodong shul\u00fce\u201d \u6e05\u672b\u81f3\u6c11\u56fd\u65f6\u671f\u65e5\u672c\u5728\u6211\u56fd\u65b0\u7586\u7684\u9634\u8c0b\u6d3b\u52a8\u8ff0\u7565 [A concise report on Japan\u2019s intelligence activity in Xinjiang during the late Qing and Republican period]. <em>Zhongguo bianjiang shidi yanjiu<\/em> \u4e2d\u56fd\u8fb9\u7586\u53f2\u5730\u7814\u7a76 (2014), No. 4: 110\u201317.<\/p>\n<h4><span style=\"color: #800000\">Endnotes<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><sup>1<\/sup> For related archival materials concerning Western Siberia, see Grekov 2000. The Russian State Military History Archive (RGVIA) also contains documents regarding the Japanese interest in Xinjiang.<\/p>\n<p><sup>2<\/sup> See, for example, Yang and Chai (2014).<\/p>\n<p><sup>3<\/sup> JACAR (Ajia rekishi shiry\u014d sent\u0101 \u30a2\u30b8\u30a2\u6b74\u53f2\u8cc7\u6599\u30bb\u30f3\u30bf\u30fc) mainly contains materials provided by the National Archives of Japan (Kokuritsu k\u014dmonjokan \u570b\u7acb\u516c\u6587\u66f8\u9928), the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (Gaimush\u014d gaikou shiry\u014dkan \u5916\u52d9\u7701\u5916\u4ea4\u53f2\u6599\u9928), and the National Institute for Defense Studies (Boueish\u014d bouei kenky\u016bsho \u9632\u885b\u7701\u9632\u885b\u7814\u7a76\u6240).<\/p>\n<p><sup>4<\/sup> See, for example, a May 19, 1906 report from Kamio Mitsuomi, Commander of the China Garrison Army, to Minister of the Army Terauchi (JACAR: C10071807400).<\/p>\n<p><sup>5<\/sup> For more on the East Asia Common Culture Academy and its graduates, see Reynolds 1986. Reynolds has also looked at the explorers sent to Xinjiang, though with only limited materials (Reynolds 1989: 236). For a general overview of these explorations, see Mori and Toktoh 2010.<\/p>\n<p><sup>6<\/sup> On Uehara\u2019s later intelligence activity in Russian Turkestan in 1912, see Obukhov 2016 (615).<\/p>\n<p><sup>7<\/sup> Hino did, however, publish a travelogue of his journey in 1909, providing general background information about his trip (Hino 1973).<\/p>\n<p><sup>8<\/sup> According to Smirnov (2007), Mannerheim, whose travels were approved by the Tsar, sent his reports directly to the General Staff Office.<\/p>\n<p><sup>9<\/sup> I would like to thank David Brophy for information concerning Sa\u2018id Muhammad al-\u2018As\u0101l\u012b.<\/p>\n<p><sup>10<\/sup> On these Tatar migrants, who had engaged in trade in northern Xinjiang since the nineteenth century, see Noda 2016.<\/p>\n<p><sup>11<\/sup> At the same time, Hino encouraged the construction of railroads by the Qing (1973: v. 1, 188 and v. 2, 160).<\/p>\n<p><sup>12<\/sup> Nakakuki\u2019s assignment was also noted by Wang Ke (2015: 194). For more on Nakakuki, see Bodde (1946) and Kuzuu (1936: 356). On relations between Nakakuki and Ibrahim, see Yamazaki 2014 (413). Since Nakakuki was on close terms with Munakata Kotar\u014d (1864-1923), who took part in the activities of the Rakuzen-d\u014d, he was also likely a Pan-Asianist (\u014csato 2013).<\/p>\n<p>*\u00a0This is a revised and shortened version of my previously published article, \u201cNippon kara ch\u016b\u014dajia eno manazashi: Kindai shinky\u014d to nichiro kankei\u201d \u65e5\u672c\u304b\u3089\u4e2d\u592e\u30a2\u30b8\u30a2\u3078\u306e\u307e\u306a\u3056\u3057 : \u8fd1\u4ee3\u65b0\u7586\u3068\u65e5\u9732\u95a2\u4fc2 [How did Japan look at Central Asian Muslims? Xinjiang in Russo-Japanese relations in the early twentieth century], <em>Journal of Islamic Area Studies<\/em> 6 (2014): 11\u201322.<\/p>\n<h6 style=\"text-align: center\">This article was published in\u00a0<em>The Silk Road<\/em>, vol. 16 (2018): 21\u201329.<\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Jin Noda\u00a0\u91ce\u7530\u4ec1 Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Tokyo University of Foreign Studies &nbsp; After the Meiji restoration, interactions with foreign countries played an important role in the course of modern Japanese history. As is well known, at the turn of the twentieth century Japan was involved in two major wars [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":49,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-568","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/568","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/49"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=568"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/568\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/edspace.american.edu\/silkroadjournal\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=568"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}]